Gaza
- I The most celebrated is the ancient city of Gaza, in Palestine, Mel. 1, 11, 3; Plin. 5, 13, 14, § 65; 6, 28, 32, § 144; Curt. 4, 5, 7; 4, 6, 4; 4, 7, 2 al.—
- B Deriv. Gāzētĭcus, a, um, adj., of or belonging to Gaza: vina, Sid. Carm. 17, 15.—
- II A city of Media, Plin. 6, 13, 16, § 42.—
- III A city of Africa, on the Arabian Gulf, Plin. 6, 29, 34, § 174.
one of the latest of the scholars and writers of the Byzantine empire, was a native, not of Athens, as some have erroneously supposed, but of Thessalonica; and on the capture of that city by the Turks (A. D. 1430), he fled into Italy. He appears to have gone first to Mantua, where he studied the Latin tongue, under Victorinus of Feltre, who was then teaching at Mantua. In A. D. 1439 he was at the council of Florence ; and in 1440 he was at Sienna. He afterwards settled at Ferrara, where he was appointed rector and professor of Greek in the Gymnasium on its establishment (which took place under duke Lionel, who occupied the duchy from 1441 to 1450); and, by his talents and reputation, attracted students thither from all parts of Italy. At Ferrara he composed his elements of grammar. It has been said that before this appointment he was reduced to the greatest destitution; but this is doubtful, though he has himself recorded that he gained his subsistence at one time by transcribing books; and a copy of the Politica of Aristotle and of the Iliad of Homer, transcribed by him, were, a century since, and perhaps still are, extant at Venice.
In 1450 he was, with several other Greeks, invited to Rome by Pope Nicholas V., and was employed in translating the works of Greek authors into Latin. After the death of Nicholas, Theodore went (A. D. 1456) to Naples, where he obtained an honourable appointment from the king, Alfonso the Magnanimous, to whose favour he was recommended by Panonnita, the king's secretary. On the death of Alfonso (A. D. 1458), he returned to Rome, where he remained, under the patronage of Cardinal Bessarion, by whose recommendation he was provided with a benefice in the southern part of the kingdom of Naples; according to some statements, in Apulia, according to others in the country of the Bruttii, i. e. in Calabria. The benefice was itself small; and the fraud or carelessness of those who received the in come for him (as he continued to reside at Rome), made it still less. Disappointed in the hope of a reward for his literary labours (especially for his translations of Aristotle's De Historia Animalium) from the Pope (Sixtus IV.), whose niggardly recompense he is said to have thrown indignantly into the Tiber, he retired (according to the account most commonly received) to his benefice, and there ended his days. He was certainly buried there. Hody has, however, shown reason to doubt the truth of the story of his indignation at the Pope's niggardliness (although this niggardliness is made the subject of an indignant remonstrance by Melancthon, and of some bitter verses by Jul. Caes. Scaliger); and several authorities of the period in which he lived state that he died at Rome. It is remarkable that the place of the death of a man so eminent should be thus doubtful. Melchior Adam (Vitae Germanor. Philosoph., ed. 3d, p. 7) states that Rudolphus Agricola heard him (A. D. 1476 or 1477) " Aristotelis scripta enarrantem ;" an obscure expression, but which, if founded in fact, shows that he must have at least paid a visit to Ferrara during or after his second residence at Rome. His death occurred A. D. 1478, when he must have been far advanced in years. Assessment
The ability and learning of Theodore Gaza received the highest praise in his own and the succeeding age. His accurate acquaintance with the Latin language, and his ready and elegant employment of it, made it doubtful whether his Latin versions of Greek writers or his Greek versions of Latin writers were the more excellent. Hody has collected the eulogies passed upon him in prose and verse by many scholars, including Politian, Erasmus, Xylander, Jul. Caes., and Jos. Scaliger, Melancthon, and Huet. He was, however, severely criticised in his own day by Georgius Trapezuntius and his son Andreas. He had incurred the enmity of George by making new Latin versions of writings which George had already translated ; and Politian, though elsewhere the eulogist of Theodore, charges him with having concealed the obligations which he owed to the versions of his predecessor. Works Original Works
His works are as follows :-- 1. Γραμματικῆς εἰσαγωγῆς τὰ εἰς τέσσαρα, or Introductivae Grammatices Libri IV. Editions
This Greek grammar was first printed by Aldus Manutius at Venice A. D. 1495 : it long enjoyed a high reputation, and was repeatedly reprinted, entire or in separate portions. A Latin version was also made of the first and second books by Erasmus, and of the other parts by others. 2. Περὶ μηνᾶν, or De Mensibus
A treatise on the months of the Athenian calendar, first printed, with the grammar, by Aldus, as above. Editions
This also has been repeatedly reprinted, either by itself, or with a Latin version by Perellus; the version has also been separately printed, and is inserted in the Thesaurus of Gronovius. (Vol. ix. col. 977-1016.) 3. Περὶ Ἀπχαιογονίας Τον́ρκων, Epistola ad Franc. Philelphum de Origine Turcarum Editions
Published with a Latin version by Allatius, in his Σύμμικτα. 8vo. Colon. Ag. 1653. vol. ii. p. 381, &c. A Latin version by Castalio had been previously published with the version of the History of Laonicus Chalcocondyles, by Clauserus. Fol. Basil, 1556, p. 181, &c. 4. Epistola Latina ad Christophor. Personam Editions
printed in the Giornale de' Lett. d' Italia, vol. xix. p. 337, 12mo. Ven. 1714; and in the Dissertazioni Vossiane of Apostolo Zeno, 4to. Ven. 1753, vol. ii. p. 139. Other Works
Some other letters of his are mentioned by Allatius, Contra Creygthon. p. 18 ; and a Commentarius ad Statuas Philostrati is noticed by Nic. Comnenus, Praenotion Mystagog. p. 187. He also took part in the controversy on the comparative merits of the Platonic and Aristotelian philosophy; but his Contradictorius Liber ad Bessarionem, pro Aristotele, in Plethonem, has never been printed. Some other unpublished writings of his are noticed by Fabricius. Translations from Greek into Latin
His principal translations from Greek into Latin were as follows:-- 1. Aristotelis de Historia Animalium Libri IX.; de Partibus Animallium Libri IV. ; De Generatione Animalium Libri V. Editions
In the preface he calls himself " Theodorus Graecus Thessalonicensis." Fol. Venet. 1476. These translations have been frequently reprinted among the works of Aristotle, with or without the original. 2. Aristotelis Problemata. Editions
This version was made under the pontificate of Nicholas V., and revised under that of Sixtus IV.; and was printed at Rome A. D. 1475. The earliest edition mentioned by Fabricius is that of Venice. Fol. A. D. 1493. 3. Theophrasti Historia Plantarum Libri X., Editions
and De Causis Plantarum Libri VI. This version, prepared during the pontificate of Nicholas V., was first printed at Treviso, A. D. 1483. (Panzer, Annal. Typog. vol. iii. p. 40.) It has been repriced, with corrections, by Heinsius and Bodaeus. The little book, Theophrasti de Suffructibus, Theodoro Gaza Interprete, published by H. Sybold, at Strasburg, is merely a reprint of the last four books of the Historia Plantarum. 4. Alexandri Aphrodisiei Problematum Libri II., Editions
printed at Venice (fol. A. D. 1501); and often reprinted. Gaza, in his preface to this translation, rejects the common opinion, that it was the work of Alexander Aphrodisiensis, and ascribes it to some later writer; but he does not name Alexander Trallianus. [Alexander Aphrodisiensis]. 5. Aelianus de Instruendis Aciebus. Editions
Fabricius does not mention any earlier edition of this version than that of Cologne, A. D. 1524; but it was printed at Rome as early as 1487, in 4to., by Eucherius Silberus. (Panzer, Ann. Typ. vol. ii. p. 491.) 6. Chrysostomi Homiliae quinque de Incomprehensibili Dei Natura. Editions
This version is found in several of the editions of Chrysostom's works. In Fabricius there is a notice of some other unpublished translations by Gaza, as of the Aphorismi of Hippocrates, and the Libri de Re Militari of the emperor Maurice. Translations from Latin into Greek
His versions from Latin into Greek were:-- 1. Μάρκου Τυλλίου Κικέρωνος Ῥωμαίου Κάτων ἢ περὶ Γήρως, M. T. Ciceronis Cato sive de Senectute ; and 2. the Ὄνειρος τοῦ Σκιπίωνος, Somnium Scipionis, of the same author. Editions
These were both printed by Aldus Manutius at Venice, A. D. 1519. 3. A letter of Pope Nicholas V. to Constantine Palaeologus, the last emperor of Constantinople. Editions
Both the original and the version are given in the Opuscula Aurea Theologica of Arcudius, 4to. Rome, A. D. 1630, and again A. D. 1670. Further Information
Hody, De Graecis Illustribus Linguae Graecae, &c. Instauratoribus. 8vo. Lond. 1742. C. F. Boerneri, De Doctis Hominibus Graecis. 8vo. Lips. 1750; Fabric. Bibl. Gr. vol. x. pp. 388-395. [J.C.M]
GAZA (Γάζα: Eth. Γαζαῖος), a very ancient and important city of Palestine Proper, first mentioned in the southern border of the Canaanites (Gens. x.: 19), but originally inhabited by the Avims, who were dispossessed by the Caphtorims. (Deut. ii.: 23.) It as included in the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15.47), but remained in possession of the Philistines (1 Sam. 6.17), whose capital it apparently was (Judges, 16.21). Josephus says that it was taken by Hezekiah. (Ant. 9.13.3.) It is celebrated in secular, as in sacred history. Arrian, in his Expedition of Alexander (2.27), describes it as a large city, distant 20 stadia from the sea, situated on a lofty mound, and fortified by a strong wall. It was well provisioned, and garrisoned by a force of Arab mercenaries under the command of an eunuch named Batis (or, according to Josephus, Babemeses), and its high walls baffled the engineers of Alexander (B.C. 332), who declared themselves unable to invent engines powerful enough to batter such massive walls. Mounds were raised on the south side of the town, which was most assailable, and the engines were erected on this artificial foundation. They were fired by the besieged, in a spirited sally, and the rout of the Macedonians was checked by the king in person, who was severely wounded in the shoulder during the skirmish. During his slow recovery the engines that had been used at Tyre were sent for, and the mound was proceeded with until it reached the height of 250 feet, and the width of a quarter of a mile. The besiegers were thrice repulsed from the wall; and when a breach had been effected, in the third assault, and the city carried by escalade, its brave garrison still fought with desperate resolution, until they were all killed. The women and children were reduced to slavery. The siege had apparently occupied three or four months; and the conqueror introduced a new population into the place from the neighboring towns, and used it as a fortress. (Arrian, 2.27, followed by Bp. Thirlwall, Greece, vol. vi. pp. 354--357.) If this be true, the statement of Strabo, that it was destroyed by Alexander, and remained desert, must be taken with some qualification (p. 759). Indeed, the figure which it makes in the intermediate period discredits the assertion of Strabo in its literal sense. Only twenty years after its capture by Alexander, a great battle was fought in its neighbourhood, between Ptolemy and Demetrius, wherein the latter was defeated, with the loss of 5000 slain and 8000 prisoners. Gaza, where he had left his baggage, while it opened its gates to his cavalry on his retreat, fell into the hands of the pursuing enemy.( Thirlwall, vol. 7. p. 340.) Again, in the wars between Ptolemy Philopator and Antiochus the Great (B.C. 217), it was used as a depôt of military stores by the Egyptian king (Plb. 5.68); and when the tide of fortune turned, it retained its fidelity to its old masters, and was destroyed by Antiochus (B.C. 198). And it is mentioned, to the credit of its inhabitants, by Polybius, that, although they in no way excelled in courage the other inhabitants of Coelosyria, yet they far surpassed them in liberality and fidelity and invincible hardihood, which had shown itself in two former instances, viz., in first resisting the Persian invaders, and then in maintaining their allegiance to the Persians against Alexander (16.40). It was evidently a strong place in the time of the Asmonean princes, for it stood a siege from Jonathan (1 Maccab. 11.61, 62; J. AJ); and having taken by Simon, not without resistance, he cast out its idolatrous inhabitants, peopled it with Jews, made. it stronger than it was before, and built at therein a dwelling-place for himself( 13.43--48). Only a little later, Alexander Jannaeus besieged it in vain for twelve months, when it was betrayed into his hands. Its importance at this period is attested by its senate of 500, whom the conqueror slew and utterly overthrew their city. (Josoph. Ant. 13.13.3.) It did not long continue in ruins, for it was one. of the many cities rebuilt by the command of Gabinins (14.5.3). It was given to Herod the Great by Augustus (B. J. 1.20.3), but not included in the dominions of his son Archelaus, as being a Grecian city (2.6.3). These notices sufficiently expose the error of Strabo's statement above cited; nor does there seem to be any authority for the theory of the transference of the site, by which it has been attempted to reconcile his statement with these historical notices. It is true that Strabo places the city 7 stadia from the harbour (p. 759); whereas Arrian (l. c.) states it to be 20 stadia at the most; but this discrepancy concerning the site of a town of which neither of them could have any very accurate knowledge, cannot justify the conclusion that the ancient city had been deserted, and another city of the same name erected in its vicinity. Another and a decisive argument against this theory is, that while the modern city occupies an eminence corresponding with that described by Aprian, and is covered with ancient ruins, no vestiges have been discovered in the neighbourhood which could mark the site of an earlier city. A succession of coins, struck at Gaza, some few prior to the emperors, but many more from Hadrian downwards, attest the importance of the city subsequently to the Christian aera, and present some peculiarities worthy of observation. The cypher, or characteristic sign of the city, impressed on almost all the coins, has been variously explained, but by no one satisfactorily: but all that is intelligible clearly attests it to have been a pagan city, in accordance with the historical notices above cited The city itself is represented by a woman's head; and the Greek deities, Zeus, Artemis, Apollo, Hercules, which figure in the coins, with the absence of the local deity, Astarte, by far the most common in the coins of other maritime cities of Syria, prove the city to have been, as Josephus asserts (B. J. 7.13.4), a Grecian city, probably a colony, which may account for its inveterate adhesion to the exploded superstition in the reign of Constantine (Sozoman, H. E. 5.3). The h legends of the various coins serve no less to elucidate the history of the city. The earliest (probably A. U. C. 693) proves the city to have been autonomous; and as history bears witness to its senate (βολή) of 500, so does this coin to its ΔΗΜΟΞ. ΙΕΠ. ΑΞΓ. further prove it to have enjoyed the privileges of a sacred city and an asylum. The, name ΕΙΩ serves to connect this city with the mythic Io; and the name ΜΕΙΝΩ applied to an armed warrior with a sceptre in his hand, connects it also with the Cretan hero Minos, and suggests the idea that it may have been colonised from that island; and this idea is confirmed by another inscription, MAPNA, the signification of. which is famished by early Christian writers, who tell us that the most magnificent temple in Gaza (afterwards converted into a Christian church) was dedicated to Mama, and thence called Marnion. This Mama, they add been was identical with the Cretan Jove. (Eckhel, vol. iii. pp. 448--454.) Many of the Jewish captives taken by Hadrian (A.D. 119) were sold at a fair instituted Gaza, which was called, from this fact, the fair of Hadrian for many centuries after. (Chrosn. Paschale in ann). The town is frequently noticed in Christian and Moslem annals. It early became an episcopal see, and the names of its bishops are found in many councils. (Le Quien, Oriens Christ., vol. iii. pp. 603--622). It was a frontier town of great importance in the middle ages; and the historical notices have been collected by Quatremère (Les Suttans Mamlouks de Mackrisi, tom. 1.54.2. pp. 228--239).
The modern town, still called by its ancient name, ‘Azzah, signifying the strong,is situated on a low round hill of considerable extent, not elevated more than 50 or 60 feet above the plain around. This hill may be regarded as the nucleus of the city, although only the southern half is now covered with houses. But the greater part of the modern city has sprung up on the plain below: a sort of suburbs stretching far out on the eastern and northern sides. The ancient city lay obviously chiefly on the hill. The present town has no gates; yet the places of the former ones remain, and are pointed out around the hill.( Robinson, Bib. Res. vol. ii. pp. 374, 375.) It contains, with the two villages or suburbs adjoining, about 10,000 inhabitants. It is situated a short league from the coast, which is here an open beach, and the landing difficult excepting in very calm weather. It is surrounded by gardens, which produce fruit in abundance.( Alderson, Notes on Acre, p. 7, note 6.)
The port of Gaza was called Majuma Gazae;t he Arabic word Majuma,s ignifying portus or navcale, being applied alike to Ascalon, Jamnia Azotus, and Gaza. (Le Quien, Oriens Christ. vol. 3. p. 622.) It was situated, according to Strabo, only seven stadia from the city (l. c.). Arrian, in agreement with Sozomen, makes the interva 20 stadia. (Sozomen, H. E. 2.5, p. 450, ed. Vales.) All that we know of it we learn from the last-mentioned historian. Having been formerly strongly addicted to pagan superstition, it was converted to the faith of Christ in the reign of Constantine, who consequently honoured it with special privileges, and erected it into an independent civitas, and called it Constantia, exempting it from its subjection to Gaza whose inhabitants still retained their attachment to the pagan superstition. (Sozomen, l. c.) Under the emperor Julian the people of Gaza reasserted their supremacy, and the emperor decided in favour of their claim. Its new name was withdrawn. and it was comprehended again within the name and municipal jurisdiction of Gaza.
The ecclesiastical position of Gaza still continued distinct, with a bishop and usages of its own; and when an attempt was made by a bishop of Gaza COIN OF GAZA
in the fifth century to unite the two churches, the provincial synod confirmed it in its former independence of that see. (Sozomen, H. E. 5.3, p. 597). Several of its bishops are mentioned in the ecclesiastical annals. (Le Quien, Oriens Christ. l. c. )
[G.W]GAZA
1.(Γάζα, Arrian, Arr. Anab. 4.2), a city or strongly fortified place in Sogdiana, taken by Alexander the Great in person, on his advance beyond the Jaxartes or Sihun. Bishop Thirlwall (Hist. of Greece, vol. 6. p. 286), and others, conjecture that this place may be recognised at Ghaz near Urtappeh, in the desert between that place and the river. Ibn Haukil (p. 270) describes Ghaz as the summer residence of the rulers of this district. It seems, however, probable that this and other cities taken at this time by Alexander the Great were more to the eastward, in the hilly country. (Wilson, Ariana, p. 165, &c.; Mem. of Emp. Baber, Introd. p. xii.)
2.In Media. [GAZACA] [V]
(Γάζα). (1) One of the five Philistine principalities, situated towards the southern extremity of Canaan, about sixteen miles south of Ascalon, and a small distance from the Mediterranean. Its port was called Gazaeorum Portus. As the name of the city of Gaza appears in the first book of Moses (x. 18), Mela must of course be mistaken, who says it is of Persian origin, and states that Cambyses made this place his chief magazine in the expedition against Egypt (Mela, i. 11). It was, however, an important and strongly-fortified place, as being situated so near the borders of that country. Alexander took and pillaged it, after it had made a powerful resistance for the space of three months (Arrian, ii. 27; Quintus Curtius, iv. 6). Antiochus the Great sacked it, and it was several times taken from the Syrians by the Maccabees (Iosephus, Ant. Iud. xiii. 21). It was afterwards subjected to new losses, so that St. Luke states (Acts, viii. 26) that it was, in his time, a desert place. The town was subsequently called Constantia. It is now termed by the Arabs, Ghuzzeh. The ancient name in Hebrew signifies “strong.”
(2) A city in the Persian province of Sogdiana. It was one of the seven cities that rebelled against Alexander the Great in B.C. 328.
An important city on the coast of Palestine from earliest times. It was a halt on the Via Mans, the main highway connecting Egypt with Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor. In the earlier periods of its existence, Egypt and the N empires fought for control of it and it was only in the Persian period that the city enjoyed limited independence. After a siege of five months Gaza was taken by Alexander the Great (Arr. Anab. 2.26ff) and for more than a century Gaza was under Ptolemaic rule. After 200 B.C. it was conquered by the Seleucids.
Shortly after the conquest of Gaza by Alexander the Nabateans apparently began using its port as their main emporium for the export of spices and aromatics, brought by land caravans from Arabia. In 96 B.C. Alexander Jannaeus attacked Gaza (Joseph. AJ 13.357) and the city was taken by the Hasmonaean monarch (Joseph. AJ 13.360-64). As a result of this conquest the Nabateans had to abandon their system of caravan halts in the Negev for almost a century. After the conquest of Palestine by Pompey in 64 B.C., Gaza regained independence and was subsequently rebuilt by Gabinius (Joseph. AJ 13.75-76). Herod the Great acquired Gaza early in his reign (Joseph. AJ 15.217; BJ 1.196). It was then that it was detached from Judea, and formed a special district under Cosbaras, the governor of Idumaea (Joseph. AJ 15.254). After Herod's death Gaza was placed under the charge of the proconsul of Syria.
During the Roman period Gaza was prosperous, and the Roman emperors conferred many favors on it, helping to build temples and other public buildings. The chief temple of the city was dedicated to Marnas. There also were temples of Zeus Helios, Aphrodite, Apollo, Athena, and of the local Tyche. The pagan temples were destroyed after the Christianization of the inhabitants of Gaza by bishop Porphyrios (A.D. 396-420). In this period a famous school of rhetoricians flourished there, and one of the most famous of its scholars was Procopius, the historian of emperor Justinian. During the Byzantine period there was a large Jewish community, and remains of its synagogues are still to be seen embedded in the walls of modern mosques. Remains of a mosaic pavement of another synagogue were recently discovered close to the Mediterranean coast, where lay the port Maiumas Gaza. On this mosaic is depicted King David playing the lyre. There have been no systematic archaeological investigations.
BIBLIOGRAPHYF. M. Abel, Géographie de la Palestine II (1938); G. Downey, Gaza in the Early Sixth Century (1963); M. Avi-Yonah, The Holy Land from the Persian to the Arab Conquests (536 B.C. to A.D. 640). A Geographical History (1966).
A. NEGEV