Aquileia
- a town in Upper Italy, still called Aquileia, not far from Tergeste, built by the Romans after the second Punic war, as a protection against the neighboring tribes, Liv. 40, 34; Caes. B. G. 1, 10; Mart. 4, 25; Plin. 3, 18, 22, § 127; Mel. 2, 4, 3; cf. Mann. Ital. I. 74 sq.— Hence, Ăquĭlēiensis, adj.: ager, Liv. 39, 45; and Ăquĭlēienses, ium, m., the inhabitants of Aquileia, id. 43, 17.
AQUILEIA(Ἀκυληΐα, Strab. et alii; Ἀκουιληΐα, Ptol.: Eth. Ἀκυλήϊος,, Steph. B., but Ἀκυλήσιος, Herodian.; Aquilleiensis), the capital of the province of Venetia, and one of the most important cities of Northern Italy. was situated near the head of the Adriatic Sea, between the rivers Alsa and Natiso. Strabo tells us that it was 60 stadia from the sea, which is just about the truth, while Pliny erroneously places it 15 miles inland. Both these authors, as well as Mela and Herodian, agree in describing it as situated onthe river Natiso; and Pliny says, that both that river and the Turrus ( Natiso cum Turro) flowed by the walls of Aquileia. At the present day the river Torre (evidently the Turrus of Pliny) falls into the Natisone(a considerable mountain torrent, which rises in the Alps and flows by Cividale, the ancient Forum Julii), about 13 miles N. of Aquileia, and their combined waters discharge themselves into the Isonzo, about 4 miles NE. of that city. But from the low and level character of the country, and the violence of these mountain streams, there is much probability that they have changed their course, and really flowed, in ancient times, as described by Strabo and Pliny. An artificial cut, or canal, communicating from Aquileia with the sea, is still called Natisa. (Strab. 5. p. 214; Plin. Nat. 3.18. s. 22; Mela, 2.4; Herodian, 8.2, 5; Cluver. Ital. p. 184.)
All authors agree in ascribing the first foundation of Aquileia to the Romans; and Livy expressly tells us that the territory was previously uninhabited, on which account a body of Transalpine Gauls who had crossed the mountains in search of new abodes, endeavoured to form a settlement there; but the Romans took umbrage at this, and compelled them to recross the Alps. (Liv. 39.22, 45, 54, 55.) It was in order to prevent a repetition of such an attempt, as well as to guard the fertile plains of Italy from the irruptions of the barbarians on its NE. frontier, that the Romans determined to establish a colony there. In B.C. 181, a body of 3000 colonists was settled there, to which, 12 years later (B.C. 169), 1500 more families were added. (Liv. 40.34, 43.17; Vellei. 1.15.) The new colony, which received the name of Aquileia from the accidental omen of an eagle at the time of its foundation (Julian. Or. II. de gest. Const.;Eustath. ad Dion. Per.378), quickly rose to great wealth and prosperity, and became an important commercial emporium; for which it was mainly indebted to its favourable position, as it were, at the entrance of Italy, and at the foot of the pass of Mount Ocra, which must always have been the easiest passage from the NE. into the Italian plains. The accidental discovery of valuable gold mines in the neighbouring Alps, in the time of Polybius, doubtless contributed to its prosperity (Pol. ap. Strab. 4. p. 208); but a more permanent source of wealth was the trade carried on there with the barbarian tribes of the mountains, and especially with the Illyrians and Pannonians on the Danube and its tributaries. These brought slaves, cattle and hides, which they exchanged for the wine and oil of Italy. All these productions were transported by land carriage as far as Nauportus, and thence by the Save into the Danube. (Strab.4. p. 207, 5. p. 214.) After the provinces of Illyria and Pannonia had been permanently united to the Roman Empire, the increased intercourse between the east and west necessarily added to the commercial prosperity of Aquileia. Nor was it less important in a military point of view. Caesar made it the head-quarters of his legions in Cisalpine Gaul, probably with a view to operations against the Illyrians (Caes. B. G. 1.10), and we afterwards find it repeatedly mentioned as the post to which the emperors, or their generals, repaired for the defence of the NE. frontier of Italy, or the first place which was occupied by the armies that entered it from that quarter. (Suet. Aug. 20, Tib. 7, Vesp. 6; Tac. Hist. 2.46, 85, 3.6,8.) The same circumstance exposed it to repeated dangers. Under the reign of Augustus it was attacked, though without success, by the Iapodes (Appian. Illyr. 18); and at a later period, having had the courage to shut its gates against the tyrant Maximin, it was exposed to the first brunt of his fury, but was able to defy all his efforts during a protracted siege, which was at length terminated by the assassination of the emperor by his own soldiers, A.D. 238. (Herodian. 8.2--5; Capitol. Maximin. 21--23.) At this time Aquileia was certainly one of the most important and flourishing cities of Italy, and during the next two centuries it continued to enjoy the same prosperity. It not only retained its colonial rank, but became the acknowledged capital of the province of Venetia; and was the only city of Italy, besides Rome itself, that had the privilege of a mint. (Not. Dign. 2. p. 48.) Ausonius, about the middle of the fourth century, ranks Aquileia as the ninth of the great cities of the Roman empire, and inferior among those of Italy only to Milan and Capua. ( Ordo Nob. Urb. 6.) Though situated in a plain, it was strongly fortified with walls and towers, and seems to have enjoyed the reputation of an impregnable fortress. (Ammian. 21.12.) During the later years of the empire it was the scene of several decisive events. Thus, in A.D. 340, the younger Constantine was defeated and slain on the banks of the river Alsa, almost beneath its walls. (Victor. Epit. 41.21; Eutrop. 10.9; Hieron. Chron. ad ann. 2356.) In 388 it witnessed the defeat and death of the usurper Maximus by Theo-dosius the Great (Zosim. 4.46; Victor. Epit. 48; Idat. Chron. p. 11 ; Auson. l. c.); and in 425, that of Joannes by the generals of Theodosius II. (Procop. B. V. 1.2; Philostorg. 12.14.) At length in A.D. 452 it was besieged by Attila, king of the Huns, with a formidable host, and after maintaining an obstinate defence for above three months, was finally taken by assault, plundered, and burnt to the ground. (Cassiod. Chron. p. 230; Jornand. Get. 42; Procop. B. V. 1.4. p. 330; Marcellin. Chron. p. 290; Hist. Miscell. 15. p. 549.) So complete was its destruction, that it never rose again from its ashes; and later writers speak of it as having left scarcely any ruins as vestiges of its existence. (Jornand. l. c.;Liutprand. 3.2.) But these expressions must not be construed too strictly; it never became again a place of any importance, but was at least partially inhabited; and in the sixth century was still the residence of a bishop, who, on the invasion of the Lombards, took refuge with all the other inhabitants of Aquileia in the neighbouring island of Gradus, at the entrance of the lagunes. (Cassiodor. Var. 12.26; P. Diac. 2.10.) The bishops of Aquileia, who assumed the Oriental title of Patriarch, continued, notwithstanding the decay of the city, to maintain their pretensions to the highest ecclesiastical rank, and the city itself certainly maintained a sickly existence throughout the middle ages. Its final decay is probably to be attributed to the increasing unhealthiness of the situation. At the present day Aquileiais a mere straggling village, with about 1400 inhabitants, and no public buildings except the cathedral. No ruins of any ancient edifice are visible, but the site abounds with remains of antiquity, coins, engraved stones, and other minor objects, as well as shafts and capitals of columns, fragments of friezes, &c., the splendour and beauty of which sufficiently attest the magnificence of the ancient city., Of the numerous inscriptions discovered there, the most interesting are those which relate to the worship of Belenus, a local deity whom the Romans identified with Apollo, and who was believed to have co-operated in the defence of the city against Maxi-; min. (Orell. Inscr. 1967,1968, &c.; Herodian.8.3; Capitol. Maximin. 22; Bertoli, Antichità di Aquileia, Venice, 1739, p. 86--96.)
Besides its commercial and military importance, Aquileia had the advantage of possessing a territory of the greatest fertility; it was especially noted for the abundance of its wine. (Herodian. 8.2.) Nor was the situation, in ancient times, considered unhealthy, the neighbouring lagunes, like those of Altinum and Ravenna, being open to the flux and; reflux of the tides, which are distinctly sensible in this part of the Adriatic. (Vitr. 1.4.11; Strab. 5. p. 212; Procop. B. G. 1.1. p. 9.) Strabo speaks of the river Natiso as navigable up to the very walls of Aquileia (5. p.214); but this could never have been adapted for large vessels, and it is probable that there existed from an early period a port or emporium on the little island of Gradus, at the mouth of the river, and entrance of the lagunes. We even learn that this island was, at one time, joined to the mainland by a paved causeway, which must certainly have been a Roman work. But the name of Gradus does not occur till after the fall of the Western Empire (P. Diac. 2.10, 3.25, 5.17), when it became, for a time, a considerable city, but afterwards fell into decay, and is now a poor place, with about 2000 inhabitants; it is still called, Grado.
[E.H.B]A town in Gallia Transpadana near the head of the Adriatic, founded by the Romans in B.C. 182. It was a strong fortress, and intended to be a barrier against the encroachments of the Northern barbarians. It was taken, however, in A.D. 452 by Attila (q.v.), who destroyed it, the inhabitants escaping to the lagoons of the Adriatic, where subsequently arose the city of Venice.
At the extreme E end of the plain of Veneto, a few km from the sea. It was founded by the Romans in 181 B.C. under the triumvirs P. Scipio Nasica, C. Flaminius, and L. Manlius Acidinus (Livy 39.55.5-6; 40.34.2). The city was established essentially for military reasons at the moment when, after the conquest of the entire peninsula, Roman power extended all the way to the Po valley. Aquilein was the base of operations against the Carnici, whose advances were brought under control in 115 B.C. (CIL I2, p. 177). The city was also the staging point for the wars against the Istri in 178-177 B.C. (Livy 41.1-5, 9-11; Flor. 1.26) and for the victorious campaigns of the consul C. Sempronius Tuditanus, which permitted the Romans to triumph over the Taurisci, Iapides, and the Liburni in 129 B.C. (Per. Liv. 59; Plin. HN 3.129; App. Ill. 10.30, 1.1, 13.1 pp. 82-83 n. 32; CIL I2, 652). The Taurisci and the lapides attacked Aquileia again in 52 B.C. (Strab. 4.6.10; App. Ill. 18.1). From the Augustan age onward, a long and prosperous period of peace was interrupted by two sieges, one by the Quadi and Marcomanni in A.D. 169 (Amm. Marc. 29.6:1; Lucian Alex. 48) and the other by Maximinus of Thrace in A.D. 238 (Herodian 7.2-3; Jul. Capitol. Maxim. duo 21-23; id. Epitome 25; Eutrop. 9.1; Oros. 7.19.2; Zonar. 12.16). From the middle of the 3d c. until the end of the Roman Empire, Aquileia was a participant in the struggles among the emperors. At the end of the 3d c. the barbarian invasions commenced, and Aquileia was the first to suffer from them because of its geographic position. Afterwards, the city slowly recovered and only in the 9th c., under the Patriarchs, did it regain any real importance.
Although the founding of Aquileia was dictated by military considerations, it was also intended to create peaceful agricultural and commercial conditions. Beginning in 181 B.C., the territory was divided into centuries. At the start, 3000 colonists were settled there, each with an allotment of 50 ha. of land. Another 1500 colonists were settled there in 169 B.C. and still another probably in the Augustan period. Commerce was the reason for the great prosperity of Aquileia. In the Republican period, it was a customs station where the portorium was collected (Cic. Pro Font. 1.2) and where two stationes of the 3d c. A.D. are attested (Ann. édpigr. 1934, n. 234). In times of prosperity, the city had 70,000-100,000 inhabitants to judge from the extent of its urban structures. It must also have been quite populous in late antiquity, as is evidenced by the size and number of its Early Christian basilicas. Commerce profited from a good highway network and from a large harbor at the mouth of the river, which allowed the transport of merchandise manufactured on site.
The roads comprising the network were: the Via Postumia (CIL V, 8313); the Via Annia (CIL V, 7992) constructed in 131 B.C. the so-called Via Julia Augusta, which ran N and passed through Tricesimum and Julium Carnicum (It. Ant., ed. Cuntz, 279-80); the road which passed over the valley of Natisone and through Forum Iuli and thence to Virunum; the road which crossed the valleys of Isonzo and Vipacco in the direction of Emona; and the road toward Tergeste, which is probably to be identified with the Via Gemina (CIL V, 7989). The harbor developed along a river which at the time was quite wide, 48 m from one bank to the other.
Originally a colonia under Roman law, Aquileia in 90 B.C. became a municipium (CIL V, 968). It became a part of Italy in 48 B.C. when Julius Caesar extended the borders of Italy as far as Formio (the Risano river). The citizens of Aquileia were enrolled in the tribus Velina, so called from the homonymous lake in Sabine territory, near Rieti. Inscriptions attest the existence of a senatus (CIL V, 961, 875, 8288, 8313), of duoviri (CIL V, 971), of quattuorviri, decuriones, and aediles (CIL V, 1015), of praetores and praefecti iure dicundo (CIL V, 949, 953, 961, 8291), of praefecti aedilicia potestate (CIL V, 749), and of quaestores (CIL V, 8293, 8298) and patroni. Other offices were priestly, among which were: pontifices (CIL V, 1015), augures (CIL V, 1016), haruspices (S.I., 197), sacerdotes (CIL V, 786, 8218; S.I., 210), flamines (CIL V, 8293), and seviri augustales, who were grouped into collegia, occasionally with their patronus (CIL V, 1012).
The vast archaeological zone of Aquileia has undergone much suffering in the course of its history. From the outset of its intense life, which spanned more than seven centuries, there was a series of reconstructions and modifications. Later, as a result of the numerous sieges, the citizens were obliged more than once to demolish monuments in order to erect fortifications. Finally, as a result of earthquakes and the long centuries of being abandoned, the city became a quarry for construction materials. The archaeological excavations undertaken since the last century have permitted the identification of the essential elements of the ancient city. Yet, little more than the foundations have been preserved.
The direction of the Republican walls has been determined. At the beginning, they were nearly square, but as time went on they were enlarged toward the N to connect with the harbor. They were of fine Roman brick and in some sections had a bossed foundation. Two gates have been brought to light, one with an inner court and the other of the Augustan type with round towers. The late walls are composed of two larger, exterior circuits. Walls of the patriarchal period indicate a settlement in that period roughly half the size of the preceding one.
The excavations have isolated elements of the most ancient phase of the harbor as described by Strabo (5.1.8). The section which is today visible is probably datable to the Claudian period and is composed of a pier more than 300 m long, with a double loading platform and accompanying moorings. Large storehouses are connected to the harbor by ramps. This complex is on the right bank of the river; the left bank, although dammed, was not equally equipped. The bridges and the entire inner highway network have been discovered. The highway system is composed of paved roads, many stretches of which were provided with porticos. The roads separated insulae of various sizes where dwellings, decorated with splendid mosaics, have been brought to light. Some of the mosaics are in the local museum and some have been preserved in situ.
The partially excavated forum, at the center of the city, is decorated with large columns and fine capitals and sculptures. However, there is a plan from the end of the 2d c. A.D. on the basis of which it is supposed that the forum of the Republican period should be sought elsewhere. The structures, such as temples, which can be definitely identified are mysteriously few; inscriptions, however, attest to the worship of more than 30 divinities, including those common to the entire Roman world and those which were characteristically of local origin, such as Belenus, Timavus, Liber, etc. In the course of the excavations, large horrea have been discovered in the SE section of the city, three bath complexes, some kilns, the amphitheater, and the circus. The theater has not yet been found. Even the imperial palace, which certainly existed, given the frequent visits of emperors to Aquileia, is no more than a subject for conjecture.
The rich necropolis set off along the sides of the roads outside the city was many kilometers in length. There are areas of tombs, marked off by stones which indicate the owner and the measurements, along with ostentatious relief monuments and inscriptions. One burial area may be seen in situ; the monuments of the other areas have been transferred to the local museum. Cinerary urns and sarcophagi have supplied fine objects of glass, amber, ivory, gold, and bronze, as well as jewels and lamps of countless types.
The Early Christian and patriarchal periods have left important traces of monuments as well as of funerary objects. In the patriarchal basilica, part of which dates from the period after Attila, there is preserved the largest figured mosaic pavement from antiquity. In the Cripta degli Scavi, next to the basilica, mosaics on three levels and from different periods are visible. The lowest levels belong to a Roman house of the Augustan period. In the district of Monastero di Aquileia there is another large Early Christian church. Its mosaic pavement is now in the Museo Paleocristiano.
Archaeological materials from Aquileia may also be found in the museums at Trieste, Udine, and Vienna; however, the Museo Archeologico at Aquileia contains the majority. In 1961, the materials of late antiquity were transferred to the Museo Paleocristiano.
BIBLIOGRAPHYG. B. Brusin, Aquileia, Guida storico artistica (1929); id., Gli scavi di Aquileia (1934); id., Nuovi Monumenti sepocrali di Aquileia (1941) PIid., “Le epigrafi di Aquileia,” RendLinc 21, 3-4 (1966) 27-35I; A. Caldarini, Aquileia romana (1930); V. Scrinari, Capitelli romani di Aquileia (1952) I; S. Panciera, La vita economica di Aquileia in età romana (1957); L. Ruaro Loseri, Il foro imperiale di Aquileia (1961) PI; A. Degrassi, “Quando Aquileia divenne Municipio romano,” RendLinc (1963) 139-43; L. Bertacchi, “Un cippo gromatico aquileiese di recente rinvenimento,” Atti I Congr. Intern. di Arch. dell' It. Sett. (1963) 111-16I; id., “Ritrovamenti archeologici in fondo ex Moro e in fondo ex Cassis,” BdA (1964) 253-66I; id., “Le più antiche fasi urbanistiche di Aquileia,” NSc (1965 suppl.) 1-11PI; M. Mirabella Roberti, “Il porto romano di Aquileia,” Atti del Convegno Intern. di Studi sulle Antichità di Classe (1968).
G. Sena Chiesa, Gemme del Museo Naz. di Aquileia (1966) I; M. C. Calvi, Vetri del Museo di Aquileia (1968) I; V. Santamaria Scrinari, Museo Arch. di Aquileia—Catalogo delle sculture romane (1972) I.
In preparation : G. B. Brusin, “Aquileia,” Inscriptiones Italiae (2 vols.) PMI; E. Buchi, Le lucerne di Aquileia, I, Le “Firmalampen” I; L. Bertacchi, La pianta archeologica di Aquileia P.
L. BERTACCHI