forum

fŏrum, i, (archaic form fŏrus, i, m., to accord with locus, Lucil. ap. Charis. p. 55 P., and ap. Non. 206, 15; Pompon. ib.), n. [etym. dub.; perh. root Sanscr. dhar-, support; dhar-as, mountain, etc.; Lat. forma, fortis, frenum, etc.; lit., a place or space with set bounds, Corss. Ausspr. 1, 149],

• what is out of doors, an outside space or place; in partic., as opp. the house, a public place, a market-place, market (cf.: macellum, emporium, velabrum): forum sex modis intelligitur. Primo, negotiationis locus, ut forum Flaminium, forum Julium, ab eorum nominibus, qui ea fora constituenda curarunt, quod etiam locis privatis et in viis et in agris fieri solet. Alio, in quo judicia fieri, cum populo agi, contiones haberi solent. Tertio, cum is, qui provinciae praeest, forum agere dicitur, cum civitates vocat et de controversiis eorum cognoscit. Quarto, cum id forum antiqui appellabant, quod nunc vestibulum sepulcri dicari solet. Quinto, locus in navi, sed tum masculini generis est et plurale (v. forus). Sexto, fori significant et Circensia spectacula, ex quibus etiam minores forulos dicimus. Inde et forare, foras dare, et fores, foras et foriculae, id est ostiola dicuntur, Paul. ex Fest. p. 84 Müll.
• I In gen., an open space.
• • A The area before a tomb, fore-court: quod (lex XII. Tabularum de sepulcris) FORUM, id est, vestibulum sepulcri, BUSTUMVE USUCAPI vetat, tuetur jus sepulcrorum, Cic. Leg. 2, 24, 61.—
  • B The part of the wine-press in which the grapes were laid, Varr. R. R. 1, 54, 2; Col. 11, 2, 71; 12, 18, 3.—
  • C Plur.: fora = fori, the gangways of a ship, Gell. ap. Charis. 55 P.—
• II In partic., a public place, market-place.
• • A A market, as a place for buying and selling: quae vendere vellent quo conferrent, forum appellarunt. Ubi quid generatim (i. e. secundum singula genera), additum ab eo cognomen, ut forum boarium, forum olitorium, cupedinis, etc. ... Haec omnia posteaquam contracta in unum locum quae ad victum pertinebant et aedificatus locus: appellatum macellum, etc., Varr. L. L. 5, § 145 sq. Müll.— Esp.
  • • • • α forum boarium, the cattle-market, between the Circus Maximus and the Tiber, Varr. L. L. 5, § 146 Müll.; Paul. ex Fest. p. 30, 5; Liv. 21, 62, 2; Plin. 34, 2, 5, § 10; Tac. A. 12, 24; cf. Ov. F. 6, 477. A part of this was probably the forum suarium, Dig. 1, 12, 1, § 11.—
        • β forum olitorium, the vegetable-market, south of the theatre of Marcellus, between the Tiber and the Capitoline hill; here stood the columna lactaria, at which infants were exposed, Varr. L. L. 5, § 146 Müll.; Liv. 21, 63, 3; Tac. A. 2, 49; Paul. ex Fest. p. 118, 6. Here was probably the forum coqui-num also, in which professional cooks offered their services in preparing special entertainments, Plaut. Ps. 3, 2, 1 (790).—
        • γ forum piscarium (or piscatorium), the fish-market, between the basilica Porcia and the Temple of Vesta, Varr. L. L. 5, § 146 Müll.; Plaut. Curc. 4, 1, 13 (474); Liv. 26, 27, 3; 40, 51, 5; Col. 8, 17, 15.—
        • δ forum cuppedinis, the market for dainties, between the via sacra and the macellum, Varr. L. L. 5, § 186 Müll. Cf. the similar market in another town, Ap. Met. 1, 24, 10 (dub. Hildebr. cupidinis).—Of places where markets were held, a market-town, market-place: L. Clodius, pharmacopola circumforaneus, qui properaret, cui fora multa restarent, simul atque introductus est, rem confecit, Cic. Clu. 14, 40: oppidum Numidarum, nomine Vaga, forum rerum venalium totius regni maxime celebratum, Sall. J. 47, 1.—Prov.: Scisti uti foro, you knew how to make your market, i.e. how to act for your advantage, Ter. Phorm. 79; v. Don. ad loc.—
  • B The market-place, forum, in each city, as the principal place of meeting, where public affairs were discussed, courts of justice held, money transactions carried on: statua ejus (Anicii) Praeneste in foro statuta, Liv. 23, 19, 18; hence also, transf., to denote affairs of state, administration of justice, or banking business. In Rome esp. the forum Romanum, Plin. 3, 5, 9, § 66; Tac. A. 12, 24; called also forum magnum, vetus, or, oftener, absol., forum, Liv. 1, 12, 8; 9, 40, 16; Cic. Att. 4, 16, 14 et saep.; a low, open artificial level, about six hundred and thirty Parisian feet long, and rather more than a hundred wide, between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, surrounded by porticos (basilicae) and the shops of money-changers (argentariae), in later times surrounded with fine buildings, and adorned with numberless statues (cf. on it Becker's Antiq. 1, p. 281 sq., and Dict. of Antiq. p. 451): in foro infumo boni homines atque dites ambulant, Plaut. Curc. 4, 1, 14 (475): in foro turbaque, Cic. Rep. 1, 17: arripere verba de foro, to pick them up in the street, id. Fin. 3, 2, 4: in vulgus et in foro dicere, id. Rep. 3, 30 (Fragm. ap. Non. 262, 24): cum Decimus quidam Verginius virginem filiam in foro sua manu interemisset, Rep. ib. 2, 37: in forum descendere, id. ib. 6, 2 (Fragm. ap. Non. 501, 28): foro nimium distare Carinas, Hor. Ep. 1, 7, 48: fallacem Circum vespertinumque pererro Saepe forum, id. S. 1, 6, 114: forumque litibus orbum, id. C. 4, 2, 44: Hostes in foro ac locis patentioribus cuneatim constiterunt, Caes. B. G. 7, 28, 1: gladiatores ad forum producti, id. B. C. 1, 14, 4: ut primum forum attigerim, i.e. engaged in public affairs, Cic. Fam. 5, 8, 3: studia fori, Tac. Agr. 39: forum putealque Libonis Mandabo siccis, adimam cantare severis, i. e. the grave affairs of state, Hor. Ep. 1, 19, 8.—Of administering justice in the forum: NI PAGVNT, IN COMITIO AVT IN FORO ANTE MERIDIEM CAVSAM CONICITO, Fragm. XII. Tab. ap. Auct. Her. 2, 13, 20: ut pacem cum bello, leges cum vi, forum et juris dictionem cum ferro et armis conferatis, Cic. Verr. 2, 4, 54 fin.: quod (tempus) in judiciis ac foro datur, Quint. 10, 7, 20: nec ferrea jura Insanumque forum aut populi tabularia vidit, Verg. G. 2, 502: forum agere, to hold a court, hold an assize, Cic. Att. 5, 16, 4; cf. id. Fam. 3, 6, 4: lenta fori pugnamus harena, Juv. 16, 47; cf. vv. sqq.—Poet. transf.: indicitque forum et patribus dat jura vocatis, Verg. A. 5, 758: civitates, quae in id forum convenerant, to that court-district, Cic. Verr. 2, 2, 15, § 38: extra suum forum vadimonium promittere, beyond his district, id. ib. 2, 3, 15, § 38.—Prov.: egomet video rem vorti in meo foro, is pending in my own court, affects me nearly, Plaut. Most. 5, 1, 10 (1050): in alieno foro litigare, i.e. not to know what to do, which way to turn, Mart. 12 praef.—Of the transaction of business in the forum: haec fides atque haec ratio pecuniarum, quae Romae, quae in foro versatur, Cic. de Imp. Pomp. 7, 19: quousque negotiabere? annos jam triginta in foro versaris, id. Fl. 29, 70: sublata erat de foro fides, id. Agr. 2, 3 fin.: nisi, etc. ... nos hunc Postumum jam pridem in foro non haberemus, i.e. he would have been a bankrupt long ago, id. Rab. Post. 15, 41: cedere foro, to quit the market, i.e. to become bankrupt, Sen. Ben. 4, 39; Dig. 16, 3, 7, § 2; Juv. 11, 50; cf. Plaut. Ep. 1, 2, 16 (119). Justice was administered in Rome not only in the forum Romanum, but also, in the times of the emperors, in the forum (Julii) Caesaris (erected by Julius Caesar, Suet. Caes. 26; Plin. 36, 15, 24, § 103; 16, 44, 86, § 236) and in the forum Augusti (erected by the Emperor Augustus, Suet. Aug. 29, and adorned with a fine ivory statue of Apollo, Plin. 7, 53, 54, § 183; Ov. F. 5, 552; id. Tr. 3, 1, 27); called simply forum, Juv. 1, 128 (where Apollo is called juris peritus, in allusion to the judicial proceedings held here); hence, circumscriptiones, furta, fraudes, quibus trina non sufficiunt fora, Sen. de Ira, 2, 9, 1; so, quae (verba) trino juvenis foro tonabas, Stat. S. 4, 9, 15; and: erit in triplici par mihi nemo foro, Mart. 3, 38, 4: vacuo clausoque sonant fora sola theatro, Juv. 6, 68.—
  • C Nom. propr. Fŏrum, a name of many market and assize towns, nine of which, in Etruria, are named, Plin. 3, 15, 20, § 116. The most celebrated are,
  • • 1 Forum Ăliēni, a town in Gallia Transpadana, now Ferrara, Tac. H. 3, 6.—
    • 2 Forum Appii, a market-town in Latium, on the Via Appia, near Tres Tavernae, now Foro Appio, Cic. Att. 2, 10; Plin. 3, 5, 9, § 64; Hor. S. 1, 5, 3; Inscr. Orell. 780 al.—
    • 3 Forum Aurēlium, a small city near Rome, on the Via Aurelia, now Montalto, Cic. Cat. 1, 9, 24.—
    • 4 Forum Cornē-lium, a town in Gallia Cispadana, now Imola, Cic. Fam. 12, 5, 2.
• —Hence, Foro-corneliensis, e, adj.: ager, Plin. 3, 16, 20, § 120.—
• • • 5 Forum Gallōrum, a town in Gallia Cispadana, between Mutina and Bononia, now Castel Franco, Cic. Fam. 10, 30, 2.—
    • 6 Forum Jūlii, a town in Gallia Narbonensis, a colony of the eighth legion, now Frejus, Mel. 2, 5, 3; Plin. 3, 4, 5, § 35; Planc. ap. Cic. Fam. 10, 15, 3; 10, 17, 1; Tac. H. 3, 43.—Deriv.: Forojulien-sis, e, adj., of or belonging to Forum Julii, Forojulian: colonia, i.e. Forum Julii, Tac. H. 2, 14; 3, 43.—In plur.: Forojulien-ses, inhabitants of Forum Julii, Forojulians, Tac. Agr. 4.—
    • 7 Forum Vŏcōnii, 24 miles from Forum Julii, in the Pyrenees, now, acc. to some, Le Canet; acc. to others, Luc, Cic. Fam. 10, 17, 1; 10, 34, 1; Plin. 3, 4, 5, § 36.

forum, ī, n. (verwandt mit foras u. foris), I) übh. ein »länglich viereckiger freier Raum«, u. zwar: 1) als Vorhof des Grabes, XII tabb. bei Cic. de legg. 2, 61; vgl. Paul. ex Fest. 82, 12. – 2) als Teil der Kelter, wohin man die auszupressenden Trauben (Oliven usw.) legte, Varro r. r. 1, 54, 2. Col. 11, 2, 71. – 3) Plur., fora = fori, die Schiffsgänge, Gell. bei Charis. 71, 30.

II) insbes.: A) ein längliches Viereck als Marktplatz, Markt, wie sie auch bei den Alten fast in jeder Stadt teils zum Verkehr (Kauf u. Verkauf), teils zu öffentlichen Verhandlungen einer od. mehrere angelegt waren, s. Liv. 23, 19, 18 (Forum zu Präneste), Apul. met. 1, 25 (forum cuppedinis = »Naschmarkt« in Hypata in Thessalien). – ad forum ire, Ter.: rectā per forum redire, Phaedr.: statua Praeneste in foro statuta, Liv.

Von den Fora in Rom selbst werden am häufigsten erwähnt: 1) als Versammlungsorte übh.: a) das älteste, das forum Rōmānum (Plin. 3, 66. Tac. ann. 12, 24) od. magnum od. vetus, gew. κατʼ ἐξ. bl. forum (Liv. 1, 12, 8; 9, 40, 16. Cic. ad Att. 4, 16, 14 u. sonst oft bei diesen u.a.), eine durch Kunst geebnete Tiefe (154 m lang und 52 m breit), nordwestl. vom Fuße des kapitolin., südl. vom Fuße des palatin. Hügels begrenzt, um das schon Tarquinius Priskus Hallen anlegen ließ (Liv. 1, 35 extr.), zwischen denen dann Kaufleute ihre Buden u. Gewölbe (tabernae), bes. die Wechsler ihre Wechselbuden od. -tische (argentariae od. mensae) aufschlugen; später mit einer Menge öffentlicher Gebäude umbaut u. mit unzähligen Statuen geschmückt, Mittelpunkt des öffentlichen Lebens in Rom, wo der vornehme Römer eine bestimmte Zeit des Tages (vor Tische) zubrachte, um Geld- od. Rechtsgeschäfte abzumachen, an den gerichtlichen Verhandlungen teilzunehmen, Neuigkeiten zu hören u. dgl., aber auch der gemeine Römer sich einfand, um sich von den Vornehmen um seine Stimme angehen zu lassen, bes. aber um den müßigen Zuschauer abzugeben, namentlich gegen Abend, wo Wahrsager u. andere Gaukler auf dem Forum ihr Wesen trieben; vgl. Plaut. Curc. 475 sqq. Macr. sat. 2, 12, 14. Hor. sat. 1, 6, 113 sq. – Nahe an diesem, gleichs. als Erweiterung, lagen, bes. zu gerichtl. Verhandlungen dienend, b) forum Caesaris, von Cäsar angelegt, Suet. Caes. 26, 2. Plin. 16, 236. – u. c) forum Augustī, von Augustus erbaut (Suet. Aug. 29, 1) und mit einer herrlichen Elfenbeinstatue des Apollo geschmückt, Plin. 7, 183. Ov. fast. 5, 552. Ov. ex Pont. 4, 15, 16. Ov. trist. 3, 1, 27 (haec sunt fora Caesaris [sc. Augusti]); bl. forum gen. b. Iuven, 1, 128 (wo Apollo wegen der Gerichtsverhandlungen auf diesem F. iuris peritus heißt). – dah. die Anspielung auf diese drei Fora b. Sen. de ira 2, 9, 4. Mart. 3, 38, 4. Stat. silv. 4, 9, 15. – d) forum Traīanī, von Trajan erbaut, forum, quod (Traianus) aedificavit, Eutr. 8, 5.

2) als bloße Marktplätze, a) forum bovārium od. boārium, der Rindermarkt, zwischen dem Zirkus Maximus u. dem Tiber, mit einem erbeuteten ehernen Stiere geschmückt (vgl. Ov. fast. 6, 478), for. bov., Varro LL. 5, 146 eod. Goth. Cic. Scaur. 23. Liv. 10, 23, 3; 22, 57, 6 (vgl. Drak. Liv. 35, 40, 8): for. boar., Varro LL. 5, 146 M. Liv. 21, 62, 2. Val. Max. 1, 6, 5 u. 2, 4, 7. Plin. 34, 10. Tac. ann. 12, 24. Paul. ex Fest. 30, 5: vulg. forum bobarium, Not. Tir. 56, 87. – b) forum olitōrium (holitōrium), der Gemüsemarkt, südl. vom Theater des Marcellus, zwischen dem kapitolin. Hügel u. dem Tiber, wo die columna lactaria stand, an der man die Kinder aussetzte, Varro LL. 5, 146. Liv. 21, 62, 2 u. 4. Tac. ann. 2, 49. Paul. ex Fest. 118, 6. – Dort wohl auch das forum coquīnum, wo die Köche (die zu jedem Gastmahl besonders gemietet wurden) ihre Dienste anboten, Plaut. Pseud. 790. – c) forum piscārium od. piscātōrium, der Fischmarkt, zwischen der basilica Porcia (neben der Kirche di S. Tito) u. dem Vestatempel, Varro LL. 5, 146. Plaut. Curc. 474. Liv. 26, 27, 3 u. 40, 51, 5. Col. 8, 17, 15. – d) forum cuppēdinis, der Naschmarkt, bei den Kornelkirschbäumen (ad corneta) zwischen der sacra via u. dem Macellum, Varro LL. 5, 146 (in einer andern Stadt, Apul. met. 1, 24).

3) vom Forum (bes. vom Forum Romanum) hergenommene Redensarten, u. zwar a) als Mittelpunkt des öffentl. Lebens: scisti uti foro, du hast gelernt, dich in die Welt zu schicken, Ter.: de foro decedere, sich aus dem öffentl. Leben zurückziehen, nicht mehr öffentlich erscheinen, Nep.: verba de foro arripere, die Worte von der Straße aufgreifen (= sich der Worte des gewöhnl. Verkehrs bedienen), Cic. – b) als Geschäfts-, bes. Wechslermarkt: triduum foro operam dare, sich auf dem Forum herumtreiben (Geldgeschäfte halber), Plaut.: iam triginta annos in foro versari, Geschäfte (als Kaufmann od. Wechsler) machen, Cic.: ratio pecuniarum, quae in foro versatur, auf dem Geldmarkt gang u. gäbe ist, Cic.: cedere foro, bankerott werden, Sen.: u. so foro mersus, bankerott, Sen.: fidem de foro tollere, den öffentl. Kredit vernichten, Cic. – c) als Ort für Staatsverhandlungen, bes. Gerichtsgeschäfte: forum attingere, anfangen Staatsgeschäfte zu treiben, bes. als gerichtl. Redner auftreten, Cic.: u. so in foro esse coepisse, Nep.: forum indicit, heißt sie das Forum zum Mittelpunkte ihrer gemeinschaftl. Angelegenheiten (Gerichte u. Verhandlungen) machen, Verg.: fori tabes, die Pest des Forums (d.i. die auf dem F. als Gerichtsort herrschenden niederen Leidenschaften u. dgl.), Tac.: omne forum (Markt = Volk) quem spectat et omne tribunal, Hor. ep. 1, 16, 57. – Sprichw., in alieno foro litigare, weder ein noch aus wissen (wie der, der vor einem fremden Forum prozessiert, dessen Gerichtsgang ihm unbekannt ist), Mart. praef. 12.

B) übtr.: 1) ein Handelsplatz, Vaga, forum rerum venalium totius regni maxime celebratum, der besuchteste Handels- u. Stapelplatz, Sall. Iug. 47, 1.

2) die Gerichts- oder Kreisstadt einer Provinz, wo wegen des Zusammenströmens von Menschen Markttage u. Gerichtshöfe waren; dah. (v. Statthalter der Provinz) forum agere, Gerichtstag halten, Recht sprechen, Cic. – u. dav. Name vieler Städte, von denen bei den gelesensten Schriftstellern (sehr viele bei Plin. nat. hist.) vorkommen: a) Forum Appiī, ein vom Zensor Appius Klaudius angelegter Marktflecken in Latium, an der via Appia (s. Appius), nach einigen j. S. Donato, Cic. ad Att. 2, 10. Hor. sat. 1, 5, 3. Plin. 3, 64 u. 14, 60. Anton. itin. 107, 4. Vulg. act. apost. 28, 15. Corp. inscr. Lat. 10, 6824. – b) Forum Aurēlium, tuskischer Flecken an der aurelischen Straße (via Aurelia), von C. Aurelius Kotta kolonisiert, j. Monte Alto, Cic. Catil. 1, 24. – c) Forum Cornēlium, Stadt der Lingones im zispadan. Gallien, vom Diktator Korn. Sulla angelegt. j. Imola, Cic. ep. 12, 5, 2. – d) Forum Gallōrum, Flecken im zispadan. Gallien, j. Casiel Franco, Galba in Cic. ep. 10, 30, 2. e) Forum Iūliī od. Iūlium, Stadt im narbon. Gallien, von Jul. Cäsar kolonisiert, j. Fréjus, Planc. in Cic. ep. 10, 15, 3 u. 17, 1. Tac. ann. 2, 63: dass. oppidum Forōiūliēnse, Tac. ann. 4, 5, u. colōnia Forōiūliēnsis, Tac. hist. 2, 14 u. 3, 42; ebenso Forōiūliēnsium colōnia, Tac. Agr. 4. – f) Forum Vocōniī, Stadt der Salier im narbon. Gallien, j. Le Luc od. Draguignan (in der Provence), Planc. in Cic. ep. 10, 17, 1. Lepid. in Cic. ep. 10, 34, 1.

1 forum [CL] 1 (Classical) public square in town or city, esp. Rome. transiens per ~um Trajanum, quod ab eo opere mirifico constructum dicunt V. Greg. p. 105; ~um Appii, quod condidit Appius senator GlC F 268. 2 place of public resort in town or city, market place. b (~um Londoniae or sim.) the Cheap. forus vel prorostra, motstow on burge Ælf. Gl.; omnes subverse sunt ecclesie et cuncte sacre scripture que inveniri poterant in mediis ~is exuste G. Mon. V 5 (cf. Cantlow Orig. Cantab. 266: omnes civitatis predicte ecclesie et cuncte sacre et catholice scripture que inveniri poterant in medio ~i exuste sunt); 1198 J. ‥ r. c. de xxxij s. et iiij d. super terras et domos suas in alto ~o Pipe 54; 1325 r. c. ‥ de xl s. de toln’ ~i nundinarum et stallag’ MinAc 1148/6 m. 2; 1336 [certain messuages in York near to Patrikpole, a street] super ~um Jovis CalCh IV 370; 1428 ac totidem fustigaciones circa ~um venale civitatis nostre predicte principalibus diebus mercati Heresy Tri. Norw. 35; 1457 in pleno ~o, dum major affuit populi multitudo, vi et armis in Ricardum G. insultum fecit Pat 484 m. 8.  b 1162 conventio ‥ super ecclesia sancte Marie Magdalene quam de ipsis tenet in ~o Lond’ pro ij solidis E. Ch. S. Paul. 171; 1212 omnes domus ‥ in ~o que sunt de ligno, unde domus lapidea vel ~um sit in periculo MGL II 87; 1240 quendam locum quem habui de eodem Nicholao in selda Cecilie Blunde in ~o, qui locus est in interiori angulo ejusdem selde versus occidentem E. Ch. S. Paul. 274 (cf. ib. 223); 1301 ferronibus de ~o MGL II 85; s1271 campanile lapideum beate Marie de Arcubus in ~o Londoniarum Ann. Lond. 81; s1326 rex ‥ exlegavit et bannivit publice in ~o Londonie [Trevisa:at Londoun in Chepe; Harl. 2261: in the towre at London] uxorem suam et filium Higd. VII 42 p. 318. 3 market, usu. held in fixed place at regular time; b (in surname); c (dist. w. ref. to commodity); d (w. ref. to market due). cum ‥ multa venalia in ~um fuissent conlata Bede HE II 1 p. 79; ~o, ‥ ceapstrœte GlH F 570; ibi unum ~um in quo manent xvij homines et reddunt censum in firma DB I 163; vociferabantur cives ‥ quod circa festum S. Martini consueverant animalia in ~o mercari sine plegio (Leg. Ed. retr.) GAS 670; Ord. Vit. XII 37 (v. 3 burgus 1); 1169 idem vicecomes r. c. de xxix s. de ~o de Cestrefeld hoc anno Pipe 60; vir quidam ‥ mercimonii gratia rerum venalium foros perlustrans Mir. Fridesw. prol. 5; a1207 qui ad vendendum et emendum ‥ venerint firmam pacem meam habeant et ~um exerceant (Ayr) BBC 199; 1211 dedi et concessi eisdem licentiam ‥ habendi ~um unaquaque die Sabbati (Arbroath) Ib. 1; 1276 Comes Warr’ habet liberum ~um apud Breyles, set ballivi sui capiunt teoloneum de omnimodia mercandisis que excedunt iij d. contra commune jus Hund. II 227; 1283 in die ~i (v. 1 dies 10a); 1297 quoddam ~um de novo factum post prandium apud Sopereslane quod dicitur la Newe Feire MGL II 97; 1303 contractus iste non est aliquid quod spectat ad ~um mercatorium Law Merch. II 68; 1313 Alicia ‥ et servientes sui emebant j quarterium frumenti extra villam obviando versus ~um regium et illud frumentum abduceret ad molendinum. et ibidem redigere faceret in farinam Leet Norw. 57; 1361 et inito consilio ‥ circa ordinacionem ~i et stallorum (Chr. Abingd.) EHR XXVI 731; 1389 teneant ~um ‥ super pavimentum (v. guttera 3a).  b c1160 testibus ‥ Roberto de ~o Feod. Durh. 128n.  c ~um suar[i]um, ubi sues vendebantur GlC F 303; 1269 tota curia ‥ conquerebatur de assisa panis et servisie male servata cum ~um bladi esset emendatus (sic) CBaron 73; 1386 contencio mota fuit inter Willelmum ‥ et Johannem ‥ apud Novum Castrum [Staffs] in ~o ferri SelCCoron 99; 1384 ~um bladorum de Mikelgate Mem. York II 121; 1388 ~um piscium apud pontem de Ouse Ib. 122; 1416 ~um venale pro bobus ‥ et animalibis omnibus mactandis ad sustentacionem hominum Ib. II 53.  d ~um hujus manerii habet comes Moritoniae DB I 120v; de novo ~o xx s. Ib. 162v; in burgo circa castellum sunt xlij homines de mercato suo tantum viventes et reddunt cum ~o iiij li. et x sol. DB I 248v. 4 market price. b (w. bonus) cheap price, cf. Fr. bon marché. c (w. carus) dear price. d agreement as to price. 1180 (v. Francigena 1b); 1209 quod vina ‥ mercatorum de Burdegal’ ‥ vendantur ad ~um vini rubei, sc. pro viij d. Pipe 172; 1258 proviso quod vina ‥ ad opus regis per racionabile et justum ~um retineantur Cl 260; 1269 platas seu pecias argenti ad dicta cambia nostra venientes ‥ emere possit ad idem ~um et eodem modo quo ad opus nostrum hujusmodi argentum emi consuevit Cl 160; 1283 quatuor vel quinque cereos, secundum quod ~um cere se habebit Reg. Malm. II 245; 1367 si ‥ naves suas ‥ pro competenti ~o ‥ frettare recusaverint Cl 205 m. 23; pondere subtili species venduntur, ut emptor / circumventus eo nesciat inde forum Gower VC VI 176.  b s1190 venerunt naves onuste de frumento ‥ et fecerunt ~um bonum ita quod summa equi de frumento, que vendebatur pro cc bisanciis, pro vj data fuit bisanciis G. Ric. I 145 (= R. Howd. III 70); primatum pallia multo / constabunt levius et meliore foro Nig. SS 2634; dominus dabit frettum pro ‥ navi; set idem N. melius ~um dabit domino quam alteri homini Cust. Bleadon 200; 1251 quod roget illos qui habent boscos vicinos infra regardum foreste quod dent regi aut vendant ad bonum ~um hujusmodi robora Cl 428; s1216 rex suspirans et ingemiscens de bono ~o panis Eul. Hist. III 109; 1454 negociator fuisti maximus, studuistique assidue bono ~o emere et caro precio vendere Reg. Whet. I 128.  c 1347 vendendo eis necessaria et non ad carius ~um quam facerent vicinis suis (Stat. David II) RegiamM II f. 55.  d 1213 certum ~um fecimus cum Madoco ‥ et aliis Walensibus qui sunt in servicio nostro recipiendum a nobis ad quatuor terminos anni Cl 123b. 5 goods for sale at market. 13‥ si burgensis aliquid ~um vel aliquam mercem emerit et hernas ded[erit][et] ille qui ~um vel aliquid vendiderit de ~o suo penitebit, duplicabit her[nas ement]is. si autem emens ~um suum palpabit vel habebit ~um vel v sol. de vendente Borough Cust. I 217 (Preston) ; item burgensis accomodabit domino suo de ~o suo et dominus reddet ei infra xl dies Ib. II 86 (Ib.) . 6 law court; b (w. contentiosus); cf. contentiosus 2c. c jurisdiction. d judgement. e (poet.) law. ~o, i. loco iudicario ‥ GlH F 570; ne ‥ cogaris in centuria qut ~o presidis vel proconsulis ‥ reddere rationem J. Sal. Pol. 396c; residet capitalis domini regis justitia, primus post regem in regno ratione ~i Dial. Scac. I 4B; ne necandus vel mutilandus traheretur ad ~um soli W. Cant. V. Thom. 11; [senes] scelus omne putabant / posse licere sibi judiciale forum A. Meaux Susanna 43; c1236 in ~o laicali (v. feodum 9); Kilwardby OS 587 (v. discutere 4a); 1273 renunciamus ‥ juris auxilio canonici et civilis privilegio clericatus et ~i Rec. Leic. I 59; 1284 renuncio ‥ ~i excepcioni omnique aliquo remedio juris canonici et civilis Chr. Peterb. 100; 1291 uxor felonis in vita viri sui secundum sanctam ecclesiam, qualitercumque deliquisset quoad ~um regium, non posset ‥ a viro suo separari RParl I 67b.  b potestas clavium data beato Petro non fuit in ~o contencioso regulariter coactiva, licet in ~o penitenciali super omnia peccata et crimina Petrus receperit potestatem Ockham Pol. I 242 (v. 8 infra); cum eadem consummare matrimonium arctabitur in ~o contensioso, et postea in penitenciali ~o judicabitur ipse concumbere cum prima Fortescue LLA 32 (v. 8 infra).  c si papa hereticus in dioecesi alicujus episcopi male docendo vel parochianos episcopi ad pravitatem inducendo delinquit, fit de ~o ejusdem episcopi et eidem est subjectus Ockham Dial. 607; laici heretici quantum ad crimen heresis sunt sub ~o judicis secularis; heretici autem clerici non sunt de ~o judicis secularis Ib. 619.  d districti Judicis examine ubi deliquerant ~o subjacentes Gir. TH II 54.  e regula nulla manet, fuerat que facta per ante, / sed novus ordo [sc. fratrum] iam facit omne forum Gower VC IV 1186. 7 ecclesiastical court. Glanv. XII 25 (v. feodum 8); 1220 petit eum ut clericum ut de eo omni querenti in ~o ecclesiastico justiciam exhibeat CurR VIII 260; 1228 (v. ecclesiasticus 1c); 1230 loquela ista testamentaria est et pertinet ad ~um ecclesiasticum CurR XIII 2482; 1244 cum ‥ clerici non simpliciter sint nobis liberati ad faciendum de eis in ~o ecclesiastico quod de ipsis secundum canonicas sanctiones fuerit faciendum AncC III 164; 1296 crimen fornicacionis et adulterii quorum correccio ad ~um ecclesiasticum et non ad forum laicum manifeste dinoscitur pertinere (Lit. Regis) MGL II 213; non potuit nisi ex legitima causa ~um Eboracense declinare Graystanes 37 p. 99; de hereticis qui sunt de ~o ecclesie et per ecclesiam judicandi Ockham Dial. 436 (recte 438); Ib. 484 (v. 8 infra). 8 (w. anima, conscientia, paenitentia or sim.) penitential tribunal. 1204 vocantes vos ad placita capitalia et penitenciale ~um (Lit. Papae) Reg. Newbattle 235; 1282 hoc dicimus secundum forum ecclesie militantis. in ~o autem consciencie ‥ Peckham Ep. 264; utrum sacerdos in ~o penitencie possit remittere totam penam Quaest. Ox. 109; 1330 si ‥ graviter deliquerint, ‥ secundum instituta regularia puniantur. in occultis vero delictis subjaceant in ~o penitencie, arbitrio yconomi vel confessoris per yconomum deputati (Ordinatio) Reg. Roff. 638; Ockham Pol. I 242; Fortescue LLA 32 (v. 6b supra); beato Petro fuit collata potestas corrigendi cunctos Christianos non solum in ~o consciencie, sed eciam in foro ecclesie; aliis autem apostolis ‥ potestas corrigendi in ~o consciencie tantum fuit commissa Ockham Dial. 484; 1344 capellani ‥ sub cura in ~o anime et obediencia vivant prepositi eorum (Reg. Linc.) Eng. Clergy 281; potestas ligandi et solvendi in ~o penitencie ‥ que confertur ex vi ordinis sacerdotalis Conway Def. Mend. 1411 (recte 1311); 1363 curam animorum ejusdem ecclesie in ~o penitenciali gerere Melrose 467; peccator potest meritorie se ipsum accusare de commisso aput testes vel judices, licet leges hominum accusacionem ‥ non requirunt. nam quoad ~um consciencie vel jus poli pertinencius accusaret reus se ipsum quam testimonium alienum Wycl. Ver. II 85; abusus absolucionis in ~o anime vocaliter facte a sacerdote Gascoigne Loci 53; W. Say Lib. Reg. Cap. 56 (v. decanus 6a); 1454 nobis in ~o consciencie post confessionem enarrabas Reg. Whet. I 126. 9 (transf. or fig., w. ref. to informal or personal process). 1221 [abbas] inveniet ‥ xxxvj garbas avene de grangia pro famulis suis in ~o parentali consulendis et aliis sacris cum pane benedicto eisdem conferendis et corpora sua sepeliendis Cart. Glouc. I 323; 1264 [the correction of faults] que requirunt examen ~i personalis [belongs to the Treasurer] Cart. Chich. 242; 1385 venit vi et armis armatus ~o guerre ‥ et ibidem litigabat usque in auroram CoramR 497 Rex r. 11. 10 law, custom; b (Gasc.). V. et. 2 forus. 1203 Hugo O. debet l m. pro habendo cambio Anglie, per idem ~um et easdem consuetudines per quas R. de C. illud tenet de rege Pipe 11.  b c1250 cum nos teneamur facere exercitum nisi semel in anno et hoc secundum quod ~um est et consuetudo in terra ‥ V. Montf. 303; contra ~a et libertates et consuetudines antiquas probatas et semper usitatas Ib..

2 forum v. sorbum

1 fŏrum, (7) ī, n. (cf. foras, foris ; peut-être foramen, forare ), espace libre :

I en part. ¶ 1 vestibule du tombeau : XII T. d. Cic. Leg. 2, 61 ; P. Fest. 82, 12 ¶ 2 forum vinarium Varro R. 1, 54, 2, espace libre dans le pressoir, où lʼon met les grappes cueillies, avant de les presser ¶ 3 fora, c. fori, bancs de rameurs : Gell. d. Char. 71, 30.

II surtout ¶ 1 place du marché, place publique, marché : forum Romanum Plin. 3, 66 ; Tac. Ann. 12, 24, ou magnum ou vetus ou simpl^t forum Liv. 1, 12, 8 ; 9, 40, 16 ; Cic. Att. 4, 16, 14, etc., le forum [centre de la vie publique de Rome républicaine] ; [plus tard] forum Cæsaris Suet. Cæs. 26 ; Plin. 16, 236 ; Augusti Suet. Aug. 29 ; Plin. 7, 183 ; Trajani Eutr. 8, 5 || forum bovarium ou boarium Cic. Scauro 23 ; Liv. 10, 23, 3 ; olitorium (holitorium) Liv. 21, 62, 2 ; coquinum Pl. Ps. 790 ; piscarium ou piscatorium Pl. Curc. 474 ; Liv. 26, 27, 3 ; cuppedinis Varro L. 5, 146, marché aux bœufs, aux légumes, aux viandes cuites, aux poissons, aux friandises ; Vaga, forum rerum venalium Sall. J. 41, 7, la ville de Vaga, marché de toutes les choses à vendre || [prov.] scisti uti foro Ter. Phorm. 79, tu as su faire ton marché, tu as su tʼy prendre ¶ 2 le forum symbolise : a) la vie publique, la vie courante : arripere verba de foro Cic. Fin. 3, 4, prendre ses mots dans la rue, dans lʼusage courant ; b) les affaires, surtout financières, cf. Cic. Pomp. 19 ; in foro versari Cic. Fl. 70, sʼoccuper dʼaffaires au forum ; sublata erat de foro fides Cic. Agr. 2, 8, le crédit avait disparu sur la place ; cedere foro Sen. Ben. 4, 39, 2, faire banqueroute, cf. Cic. Rab. Post. 41 ; c) la vie politique et surtout les tribunaux, lʼéloquence politique et judiciaire : forum attingere Cic. Fam. 5, 8, 3, aborder le forum (affaires publiques) ; judicia et forum Cic. Br. 119, les tribunaux et en général le forum, cf. Cic. Arch. 7 ; Verr. 2, 4, 121 ; in alieno foro litigare Mart. 12, præf., plaider devant un tribunal dont on ignore la procédure, être tout dérouté ¶ 3 [dans les provinces] centre dʼun marché et dʼun tribunal, centre dʼassises du gouverneur : provinciæ fora Cic. Verr. 2, 4, 76, les centres dʼassises de la province ; civitates, quæ in id forum conveniunt Cic. Verr. 2, 2, 38, les cités qui ressortissent à ce siège [de tribunal], cf. Cic. Verr. 2, 3, 38 ; [dʼoù] forum agere Cic. Att. 5, 16, 4 ; Fam. 3, 6, 4, etc., tenir les assises, rendre la justice ¶ 4 emplacement dans le camp, à gauche du prétoire, où se dressait la tribune dʼoù le général parlait aux troupes convoquées en contio : Liv. 28, 26, 12.

forum , i. n.
大街。市。大衙門。— piscatorium 魚市。Agere forum 理事。 Indicere forum 定衙門。Ut primum attigi forum 吾始保訟之時。Foro uti 從時。Foro (abl.) cedere 封行。封舖。

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forum ī, n

• 1 FOR-, an open space, public place, court, market-place: forum, id est, vestibulum sepulcri: per fora loqui, Ta.: Pars forum celebrant, O.—A market-place, market, enclosure for selling, exchange: fora exstruere, Ta.: rerum venalium, S.: cui fora multa restarent, had many market-places to visit: boarium, the cattle-market(adjoining the circus), L.: holitorium, the vegetable-market, L.: piscatorium, the fish-market, L.— Prov.: Scisti uti foro, i. e. to act for your advantage, T.—A market-place, forum, public square, exchange(in each city, the centre of public life): Nunc forum quem spectat, i. e. all the people, H.: statua eius (Anici) Praeneste in foro statuta, L.: mane forum pete, H.—In Rome, esp. Forum Romanum, or Forum, an open space between the Capitoline and Palatine hills, surrounded by porticos and shops: toto quantum foro spatium est, L.: adripere verba de foro, pick up in the street: caruit foro Pompeius, i. e. was compelled to avoid: filiam in foro suā manu interemere: forumque Litibus orbum, H.: ut primum forum attigerim, i. e. engaged in public affairs: studia fori, Ta.: forum Mandabo siccis, i. e. affairs of state, H.: ut forum et iuris dictionem cum ferro et armis conferatis, the courts: cedat forum castris: Insanum, V.: forum agere, hold court: fori harena, Iu.: civitates, quae in id forum convenerant, that court-district: extra suum forum vadimonium promittere, jurisdiction: annos iam triginta in foro versaris, in trade: sublata erat de foro fides: hunc in foro non haberemus, i. e. he would have been bankrupt: Cedere foro, become bankrupt, Iu.: Forum Augustum (with an ivory statue of Apollo), O.; called forum, Iu.—As nompropr. of many market and assize towns.—Esp.: Appī, a markettown in Latium, on theVia Appia, C., H.: Aurelium, a small town on theVia Aurelia, C.

FORUM

FORUMAs the plan of the present work does not include a topographical description of the various fora at Rome, the following article only contains a brief statement of the purposes which they served.

Forum originally signifies an open space (area) before any building, especially before a sepulcrum (Festus, s. v.; Cic. de Legg. 2.2. 4, § 61); the word is no doubt connected with foris, and so means any place out of doors. The characteristic features of a Roman forum were, that it was a levelled space of ground of an oblong form, and surrounded by buildings, houses, temples, basilicas or porticoes (Vitr. 5.1, 2). The forum at Pompeii, now completely excavated and showing very handsome architectural surroundings, will afford a good general notion of the usual appearance of these places and the way they were laid out. A forum was originally used as a place where justice was administered, and where goods were exhibited for sale (Varr. L. L. 5.145, M.). We have accordingly to distinguish between two kinds of fora; of which some were exclusively devoted to commercial purposes and were real market-places, while others were places of meeting for the popular assembly and for the courts of justice. Mercantile business, however, was not altogether excluded from the latter, and it was especially the bankers and usurers who kept their shops in the buildings and porticoes by which they were surrounded. The latter kinds of fora were sometimes called fora judicialia, to distinguish them from the mere market-places.

Among the fora judicialia the most important was the Forum Romanum, which was simply called forum, as long as it was the only one of its kind which existed at Rome. At a late period of the republic, and during the empire, when other fora judicialia were built, the Forum Romanum was distinguished from them by the epithets vetus or magnum. It was situated between the Palatine, the Capitoline, and the Quirinal hills, and its extent was seven jugera, whence Varro (de R. R. 1.2) calls it the Septem jugera forensia. It was originally a swamp or marsh, but was said to have been filled up by Romulus and Tatius, and to have been set apart as a place for the administration of justice, for holding the assemblies of the people, and for the transaction of other kinds of public business. The memory of its original state was preserved to the latest times by the legend of the Lacus Curtius (Liv. 1.12; Varr. L. L. 5.148; Dion. Hal, 2.42; Plut. Rom. 18); but in reality it was drained by the construction of the Cloaca Maxima in the time of the last kings [CLOACA; EMISSARIUM ]. In the larger sense, as applied to the whole valley surrounded by the three hills just named, the forum included the comitium, or the place of assembly for the curiae (Varr. L. L. 5.155, M.), which was separated from the forum in its narrower sense, or the place of assembly for the comitia tributa, by the Rostra. (Niebuhr, Hist. of Rome, 1. p. 291, note 746, and p. 426, note 990; Walter, Gesch. des röm. Rechts, p. 83; Göttling, Röm. Staatsverf. p. 155.) These ancient rostra were an elevated platform (suggestum), from which the orators addressed the people, and which derived their name from the circumstance that, after the subjugation of Latium, its sides were adorned with the beaks (rostra) of the ships of the Antiates (Liv. 8.14). In subsequent times, when the curiae had lost their importance, the accurate distinction between comitium and forum likewise ceased, and the comitia tribute were sometimes held in the Circus Flaminius; but towards the end of the republic the forum seems to have been chiefly used for judicial proceedings, and as a money market; hence Cicero (Cic. de Orat. 1.36.167) distinguishes between a speaker in the popular assembly (orator) and the mere pleader: Ego istos non modo oratoris nomine, sed ne foro quidem dignos putarim. The orators when addressing the people from the rostra, and even the tribunes of the people in the early times of the republic, used to front the comitium and the curia; but C. Gracchus (Plut. C. Gracch. 5), or, according to Varro (de R. R. 1.2) and Cicero (de Am. 25.96), C. Licinius, introduced the custom of facing the forum, thereby acknowledging the sovereignty of the people. In 308 B.C. the Romans adorned the forum, or rather the bankers' shops (argentarias) around, with gilt shields which they had taken from the Samnites: and this custom of adorning the forum with these shields and other ornaments was subsequently always observed during the time of the Ludi Romani, when the Aediles rode in their chariots (tensae) in solemn procession around the forum. (Liv. 9.40; Cic. in Verr. 1.5. 4, § 141, and 3.4.9.) After the victory of C. Duilius over the Carthaginians the forum was adorned with the celebrated columna rostrata [COLUMNAp. 495 a ]. In the upper part of the forum, or the comitium, the laws of the Twelve Tables were exhibited for public inspection, and it was probably in the same part that in 304 B.C. On. Flavius exhibited the Fasti, written on white tables (in albo), that every citizen might be able to know the days on which the law allowed the administration of justice. (Liv. 9.46.) Besides the ordinary business which was carried on in the forum, we read that gladiatorial games were held in it (Vitr. 5.1, 2), and that prisoners of war and faithless colonists or legionaries were put to death there. (Liv. 7.19; 9.24-Z2; 28.28-Z2.) Down to the latest times of the republic, the forum was the usual place where funeral games were given; on these occasions it was temporarily enclosed with wooden railings (Cic. pro Sest. 58.124; CANCELLI).

Before the end of the Second Punic War a small portion only of the space between the Palatine, the north-eastern end of the Capitoline, and the Quirinal was occupied as a Forum or public place of meeting. It does not appear that even in the populous times of the later republic the open space of the Forum was ever enlarged; but overcrowding was in some measure prevented by the building of open basilicas, beginning with the Basilica Porcia in the censorship of Cato, B.C. 184. With the growth of provincial business the courts of law and public buildings must have become more and more inadequate (Burn, p. 75). Out of this state of things arose, in the period between Julius Caesar and Trajan, the Five Imperial Fora. 1. The first of these, and the second forum judiciarium, was built by the dictator Caesar out of the spoils of the Gallic war, and was called Forum Caesaris or Julii. The site chosen was exceptionally crowded and valuable, immediately to the north-east of the Forum Romanum, and a hundred million sesterces were paid for it. The levelling of the ground cost large additional sums; in the centre stood the magnificent temple of Venus Genetrix, the tutelary goddess of his family, which he had vowed at the battle of Pharsalia (Suet. Jul. 26; Plin. Nat.35.156, 36.103; Dio Cass.). For plans of this and the other imperial fora, see Burn, p. 126; Middleton, p. 253. Nothing now remains of this forum but five half-buried arches, figured by Middleton, p. 255.2. The Forum Augusti, the next in date, stood back from the Forum Julii in the same N.E. direction. The central area was occupied by the temple of Mars Ultor, commemorating the battle of Philippi, though it was not finished until forty years later, and dedicated in B.C. 2. (Vellei. 2.100.2.) Augustus further adorned his forum with statues of the most distinguished men of the republic, and issued a decree that only the judicia publica and the sortitiones judicum should take place in it. (Suet. Aug. 29and 31; compare Dio Cass.; Plin. Nat.36.102; Veli. Pat. 2.39; Ovid, ex Pont. 4.15, 16 Martial (Mart. 3.38, 3; Seneca, de Ira, 2.9; Stat. Silv. 4.9, 15.) After the Forum Augusti had severely suffered by fire, it was restored by Hadrian. (Spart. Hadr. 19.)3. The Forum Pacis was built to enclose the Temple of Peace, dedicated by Vespasian A.D. 75. It commemorated the close of the civil wars which had filled the short reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, the undisputed authority of the emperor, and the taking of Jerusalem (Suet. Vesp. 9; Dio Cass.). According to Pliny (H. N 36.102) the three most magnificent buildings in Rome were the basilica of Paullus, the forum of Augustus, and Vespasian's temple of Peace. The site was to the south-east of the Forum of Augustus, but did not quite join it; a wide street from the Subura to the Forum Romanum being left between. This narrow strip afterwards became the Forum Transitorium of Nerva. There are no remains of the Temple of Peace, and the slight existing remains of the forum are referred by Middleton, on account of their construction, to a. restoration by Sept. Severus after a fire in the reign of Commodus.4. The situation of the forum of Nerva has been already indicated. It was called Transitorium, on account of the highway which ran through it; or Palladium, from containing a temple of Minerva. The two Corinthian columns buried to about half their height, and now called Colonnacce, belonged to this temple; part of the outer wall of the forum is also extant, built to correspond with the forum of Augustus both in construction and height (about 100 feet).5. The Forum Trajani was probably the most magnificent of all. It occupied a large space between the Capitoline and Quirinal hills, the latter of which was cut back to a height of 100 Roman feet, as shown by the inscription on the Column of Trajan (for the true explanation of this inscription, see Middleton, p. 270). The entrance was at the lower or southern end, where a triumphal arch, surmounted by a statue of Trajan in a six-horse chariot, divided it from the forum of Augustus. The open space (area fori, Gell. 13.25.2) was surrounded by a double row of porticoes, and enlarged by four enormous apses or semicircular extensions, one of which can still be traced in the slope of the Quirinal. In the centre stood the Basilica Ulpia, which fills the greater part of the modern Foro Trajano; beyond it was a cloistered court (atrium) surrounding the celebrated column which bears Trajan's name, and flanked by two libraries--one for Greek, the other for Latin MSS.; at the upper end it was closed by the temple of Trajan, dedicated by his successor. For full topographical details, see Burn, pp. 141-153; Middleton, pp. 268-281.

Fora of Sallust, of Aurelian, and of Diocletian are mentioned in the regionary catalogues, but are mere names to us.

Different from these fora were the numerous markets at Rome, more useful than ornamental, and some of them reaching back to a very high antiquity. The most important was the Forum Boarium, or cattle market, occupying a large space between the Velabrum and the Tiber; the notion that it derived its name from the statue of an ox, whencesoever imported (Ov. Fast. 6.477; Plin. Nat.34.10), can hardly be right, as it was almost certainly so named long before statues were introduced at Rome. Another legend connected the name with the oxen of Hercules, stolen by Cacus (Propert. 5.9, 19-20). Others which took their names from the goods sold in them were the forum olitorium and piscatorium, for vegetables and fish (Varr. L. L. 5.146; Col. 8.19), suarium for pigs (Dig. 1, 12, 1), cupedinis (Varr,L. L. 5.41) or cupedinarium (Symm. Ep. 8.19) for dainties. On the whole subject see Burn, Rome and the Campagna, chaps. v. vi. vii. xii.; Middleton, Ancient Rome in 1885, chaps. v. vi. viii.

[L.S] [W.W]

Forum

A word which first signified an open space (area) before any building, especially before a sepulchre ( Fest. s. v.). It is no doubt connected with foris, and so means any place “out of doors.” The characteristic features of a Roman forum were, that it was a levelled space of ground of an oblong form, and surrounded by buildings, houses, temples, basilicas or porticoes (Vitruv. v. 1, 2). The forum at Pompeii, now completely excavated and showing very handsome architectural surroundings, affords a good general notion of the usual appearance of these places and the way they were laid out. A forum was originally used as a place where justice was administered, and where goods were exhibited for sale (Varro, L. L. v. 145). One must accordingly distinguish between two kinds of fora, of which some were real marketplaces, while others were places of meeting for the popular assembly and for the courts of justice. Mercantile business, however, was not altogether excluded from the latter, and it was especially the bankers and usurers who kept their shops in the buildings and porticoes by which they were surrounded. The latter kinds of fora were sometimes called fora iudicialia, to distinguish them from the mere market-places.

Among the fora iudicialia the most important was the Forum Romānum, which was simply called Forum, as long as it was the only one of its kind which existed at Rome. At a late period of the Republic, and during the Empire when other fora iudicialia were built, the Forum Romanum was distinguished from them by the epithets vetus or magnum. It was situated between the Palatine, the Capitoline, and the Quirinal Hills, and its extent was seven iugera (Varro, R. R. i. 2). It was originally a swamp or marsh, but was said to have been filled up by Romulus and Tatius, and to have been set apart as a place for the administration of justice, for the assemblies of the people, and for other kinds of public business. It was drained by the construction of the Cloaca Maxima in the time of the last kings. (See Cloaca; Emissarium.) In the larger sense, as applied to the whole valley surrounded by the three hills just named, the Forum included the Comitium, or the open place of assembly for the curiae (Varro, L. L. v. 155) in the centre of the Forum proper. Ancient rostra were an elevated platform (suggestum), from which the orators addressed the people, and which derived their name from the circumstance that, after the subjugation of Latium, the sides of the platform were adorned with the beaks (rostra) of the ships of the Antiates (Livy, viii. 14). In subsequent times, when the curiae had lost their importance, the accurate distinction between Comitium and Forum likewise ceased, and the Comitia Tributa were sometimes held in the Circus Flaminius; but towards the end of the Republic the Forum seems to have been chiefly used for judicial proceedings, and as a sort of Exchange. The orators, when addressing the people from the rostra, and even the tribunes of the people in the early times of the Republic, used to front the Comitium and the Curia; but C. Gracchus, or perhaps C. Licinius, introduced the custom of facing the Forum, thereby acknowledging the sovereignty of the people. In B.C. 308 the Romans adorned the Forum, or rather the bankers' shops (argentariae) around, with the gilded shields which they had taken from the Samnites: and this custom of adorning the Forum with these shields and other ornaments was subsequently always observed during the time of the Ludi Romani, when the aediles rode in their chariots (tensae) in solemn procession around the Forum (Livy, ix. 40). After the victory of C. Duilius over the Carthaginians the Forum was adorned with the celebrated Columna Rostrata (q.v.). In the upper part of the Forum, or the Comitium, the laws of the Twelve Tables were exhibited for public inspection, and it was probably in the same part that in B.C. 304 Cn. Flavius exhibited the Fasti, written on white tables (in albo), that every citizen might be able to know the days on which the law allowed the administration of justice. (See Dies.) Besides the ordinary business which was carried on in the Forum, we read that gladiatorial games were held in it (Vitruv. v. 1, 2), and that prisoners of war and faithless colonists or legionaries were put to death there (Livy, vii. 19; ix. 24; xxviii. 28). Down to the latest times of the Republic, the Forum was the usual place where funeral games were given; on these occasions it was temporarily enclosed with wooden railings ( Pro Sest. 58, 124). See Cancelli.

The ancient structures in the Forum were restored by Theodoric in the sixth century A.D., and down to the eighth century the original level was unchanged; but during the Middle Ages the magnificent edifices of ancient Rome were used as a quarry from which churches and secular buildings drew their building-stones, marbles, columns, and even their lime, which was derived from burning the ancient marble in kilns. Still more eagerly were the bronzes appropriated, so that it is not surprising that so few works of art, comparatively, have survived. In the eleventh century, the Forum was covered with the towers and fortress-walls of the mediaeval nobles, and the ultimate demolition of these covered the ground with a layer of rubbish to which fresh deposits were continuously made, especially when new buildings were reared and new streets constructed. The result is that the original level is now in some places fully forty feet below the surface. From the Middle Ages down to the present century, the site of the Forum was called Campo Vaccino. Its desolate area was given up to the buffaloes and oxen of the peasantry, to the scattered workshops of the meaner artisans, and to the few ruined columns that protruded from the rubbish as a melancholy reminiscence of its former glories. Such investigations and excavations as were first made under Raphael (especially in 1546-47) were undertaken solely in the search for works of art, and the trenches were soon refilled; but in the present century, more scientific research began. In 1803 the Arch of Septimius Severus (see page 118), in 1813 the Column of Phocas, and in 1816-19 the Capitoline Hill with its temples were disinterred by Carlo Fea. Subsequently to 1835, the Basilica Iulia was in part recovered by Canina, and since 1871, when the Italian government occupied Rome as the capital of Italy, the work of excavation has been pushed with vigour. The Temples of Castor, Caesar, Faustina, Vespasian, etc., the Atrium Vestae, and the rest of the Basilica have been exhumed, besides a good part of the adjacent streets.

In the period between Iulius Caesar and Trajan the five imperial fora were erected.

(1) The first of these, and the second forum iudiciarium, was built by the dictator Caesar out of the spoils of the Gallic War, and was called Forum Caesăris or Iulii. The site chosen was exceptionally crowded and valuable, immediately to the northeast of the Forum Romanum, and a hundred million sesterces ($4,000,000) were paid for it. The levelling of the ground cost large additional sums; in the centre stood the magnificent temple of Venus Genetrix, the tutelary goddess of Caesar's family, which he had vowed at the battle of Pharsalia ( Iul. 26). Nothing now remains of this Forum but five half-buried arches.

(2) The Forum Augusti, the next in date, stood back from the Forum Iulii in the same direction. The central area was occupied by the temple of Mars Ultor, commemorating the battle of Philippi, though it was not finished until forty years later, and dedicated in B.C. 2 (Vell. Pat. ii. 109. 2). Augustus further adorned his Forum with statues of the most distinguished men of the Republic, and issued a decree that only the iudicia publica and the sortitiones iudicum should take place in it (Suet. Aug. 29 and 31). After the Forum Augusti had severely suffered by fire, it was restored by Hadrian (Spart. Hadr. 19).

(3) The Forum Pacis was built to enclose the Temple of Peace, dedicated by Vespasian A.D. 75. It commemorated the close of the civil wars which had filled the short reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, the undisputed authority of the emperor, and the taking of Jerusalem (Suet. Vesp. 9; Dio Cass. lxvi. 15). According to Pliny (Pliny H. N. xxxvi. 102) the three most magnificent buildings in Rome were the Basilica of Paullus, the Forum of Augustus, and Vespasian's Temple of Peace. The site was to the southeast of the Forum of Augustus, but did not quite join it, a wide street from the Subura to the Forum Romanum being left between. This narrow strip afterwards became the Forum Transitorium of Nerva. There are no remains of the Temple of Peace.

(4) The situation of the Forum of Nerva has been already indicated. It was called Transitorium, on account of the highway which ran through it; or Palladium, from containing a Temple of Minerva. The two Corinthian columns, buried to about half their height, and now called Colonnacce, belonged to this temple; part of the outer wall of the Forum is also extant.

(5) The Forum Traiāni was probably the most magnificent of all. It occupied a large space between the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills, the latter of which was cut back to a height of 100 Roman feet, as shown by the inscription on the Column of Trajan. The entrance was at the lower or southern end, where a triumphal arch, surmounted by a statue of Trajan in a six-horse chariot, divided it from the Forum of Augustus. The open space was surrounded by a double row of porticos, and enlarged by four enormous apses or semicircular extensions, one of which can still be traced in the slope of the Quirinal. In the centre stood the Basilica Ulpia, which fills the greater part of the modern Foro Traiano; beyond it was a cloistered court (atrium) surrounding the celebrated column which bears Trajan's name, and flanked by two libraries—one for Greek, the other for Latin MSS. At the upper end it was closed by the Temple of Trajan, dedicated by his successor. The splendour of the Forum Traiani greatly impressed the later Romans. Ammianus Marcellinus, in an account of a visit made to Rome by the emperor Constantius, describes a guest of that prince, a Persian, as amazed by this great work, “so exquisite,” says the historian, “that the gods themselves would find it hard to refuse their admiration” (xvi. 14).

Different from these fora were the numerous markets at Rome, some of them reaching back to a very high antiquity. The most important was the Forum Boarium, or cattle market, occupying a large space between the Velabrum and the Tiber; the notion that it derived its name from the statue of an ox, whencesoever imported (Ovid, Fast. vi. 477), can hardly be right, as it was almost certainly so named long before statues were introduced at Rome. Others which took their names from the goods sold in them were the Forum Olitorium and Piscatorium, for vegetables and fish, Suarium for pigs, Cupedĭnis or Cupedinarium for dainties.

Of the Forum Romanum the bearings and dimensions form one of the most disputed points of Roman topography. The excavations at Pompeii, however, have opened the Forum of that city, the remains of which are sufficiently preserved to enable us to trace the ground-plans of the various edifices surrounding it, and to assign some probable use to each of them; and will thus afford a general notion of the usual appearance of these places, and of the manner in which they were laid out. The central area is paved with large square flags, on which the bases for many statues still remain, and surrounded by a Doric colonnade of two stories, backed by a range of spacious and lofty buildings all round. The principal entrance is through an archway (fornix) (a), on the lower end of the annexed plan, and by the side of a temple of the Corinthian order (b), supposed to have been dedicated to Iupiter. On the opposite flank of this temple is another entrance into the Forum, and by its side the public prison (carcer) (c), in which the bones of two men with fetters on their legs were found. Adjacent to this is a long shallow building (d), with several entrances from the colonnade, surmised by the Italian archaeologists to have been apublic granary (horreum). The next building is another temple of the Corinthian order (e), dedicated to Apollo, as is learned from an inscription found on the spot. It stands in an area enclosed by a blank wall and peristyle, to which the principal entrance is in a side street, abutting on the Forum, and flanking the basilica (f), beyond which there are three private houses out of the precincts of the Forum. The farther or southern side of the square is occupied by three public edifices (g, h, i), nearly similar to one another in their plans and dimensions. All these were decorated with columns and statues, fragments of which were found upon the floor; but there are no sufficient grounds for deciding the uses for which they were destined. The first is merely conjectured to have been a council chamber (curia); the second, the treasury (aerarium); and the last, another curia. Beyond these is another street, opening on the Forum; and, turning the angle, are the remains of a square building (k), for which no satisfactory use can be suggested. The space behind is occupied by the sites of three private houses. The next object is a large plot of ground (l), surrounded by a colonnade (porticus) and a cloister (crypta), and decorated in front, where it faces the Forum, by a spacious entrance porch or vestibule (chalcidicum), all of which were constructed at the expense of a woman named Eumachia. Beyond this is a small temple (m) upon a raised basement, attributed by some to Mercury, by others to Quirinus; and adjoining it, an edifice (n), with a large semicircular tribune or absis at its farther extremity, supposed to have been a meeting-hall for the Augustales, or a town-hall (senaculum) for the Pompeian Senate. The rear of both these structures is covered by the premises belonging to a fuller's establishment (fullonica). The last structure (o) is a magnificent building, with various appurtenances behind it, commonly called the Pantheon, from twelve pedestals placed in a circle round an altar in their centre, supposed to have supported the statues of the Dii Magni, or twelve principal divinities.

On the whole subject see Marucchi, Descrizione del Foro Romano (Rome, 1883); Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries (Boston, 1888); Nichols, The Roman Forum (London, 1877); Jordan, Capitol, Forum, und Via Sacra (Rome, 1884); Ziegler, Das Alte Rom (Stuttgart, 1882); Middleton, Ancient Rome in 1885, chaps. v. vi. viii.; id. Remains of Ancient Rome, vol. i. chaps. vi. vii. and vol. ii. chap. i. (London, 1892); and the article Roma.

forum Forum

• of Augustus at Rome: Paus. 8.46.4
• of Trajan at Rome with bronze roof: Paus. 5.12.6, Paus. 10.5.11