gemma

gemma, ae, f. [cf. Gr. γέμω, to be full; Lat. gumia; lit. a fulness, swelling. The ancients supposed the original meaning to be a precious stone, Quint. 8, 6, 6; cf. Cic. Or. 24, 81; id. de Or. 3, 38, 155], a bud, eye, or gem on a plant.

• I Lit.: ineunte vere exsistit tamquam ad articulos sarmentorum ea, quae gemma dicitur, Cic. de Sen. 15, 53: (pampinus) trudit gemmas et frondes explicat omnes, Verg. G. 2, 335; jam laeto turgent in palmite gemmae, id. E. 7, 48; Col. 4, 29, 4.—
• II Transf. (from the resemblance to buds in shape and color), a precious stone, esp. one already cut, a jewel, gem, the predom. signif. of the word (opp. lapillus, one that is opaque, v. Dig. 34, 2, 19, § 17; cf. also: margarita, unio): nego in Sicilia tota ... ullam gemmam aut margaritam, quicquam ex auro aut ebore factum ... quin conquisierit, etc., Cic. Verr. 2, 4, 1, § 1: pocula ex auro gemmis distincta clarissimis, id. ib. 2, 4, 27, § 62: vas vinarium ex una gemma pergrandi, id. ib.: Cyri ornatus Persicus multo auro multisque gemmis, id. de Sen. 17, 59: gemmas sunt qui non habeant, Hor. Ep. 2, 2, 180: cum virides gemmas collo circumdedit (mulier), Juv. 6, 458: non gemmis venale, Hor. C. 2, 16, 7: vitrea, i.e. a false gem, Plin. 35, 6, 30, § 48; also called facticia, id. 37, 7, 26, § 98: nec premit articulos lucida gemma meos, Ov. H. 15, 74: nec sufferre queat majoris pondera gemmae, Juv. 1, 29: usus luxuriantis aetatis signaturas pretiosis gemmis coepit insculpere, Capitol. ap. Macr. S. 7, 13, 11; Vulg. Exod. 25, 7 et saep. —
• • • 2 Transf.
    • • a Things made of precious stones.
      • • α A drinking-vessel, goblet or cup, made of a precious stone: nec bibit e gemma divite nostra sitis, Prop. 3, 5 (4, 4), 4; cf.: ut gemmā bibat, Verg. G. 2, 506: gemmā ministrare, Sen. Prov. 3 fin.; cf. also: in gemma posuere merum, Ov. M. 8, 572.—
        • β A seal ring, signet: protinus impressā signat sua crimina gemmā, Ov. M. 9, 566; cf. Plin. 37, 1, 2, § 3; 37, 5, 20, § 78: arguit ipsorum quos littera gemmaque, Juv. 13, 138; 1, 68.—Hence, comically: Pl. Opsecro parentis ne meos mihi prohibeas? Cu. Quid? ego sub gemmane apstrussos habeo tuam matrem et patrem? i. e. under lock and key, Plaut. Curc. 5, 2, 8 (606).—
      • b A pearl (poet.): legitur rubris gemma sub aequoribus. Prop. 1, 14, 12: cedet Erythraeis eruta gemma vadis, Mart. 8, 28, 14. —
      • c The eyes of the peacock's tail: gemmis caudam stellantibus implet, Ov. M. 1, 723; cf.: gemmea cauda, Phaedr. 3, 18, 8). —
  • B Trop., like gem in English, ornament, beauty (post-Aug. and very rare): multas in digitis, plures in carmine gemmas Invenies, Mart. 5, 11, 3: Hesperius gemma amicorum, Sid. Ep. 4, 22.

gemma, ae, f., I) das Auge, die Knospe, am Weinstocke, an Bäumen, Cic. u.a. – II) der Edelstein, bes. der geschnittene, durchsichtige (während lapillus = der Edelstein, undurchsichtig, s. Serv. dig. 34, 2, 19. § 17), der Juwel, die Gemme, A) eig. u. übtr.: 1) eig.: ulla gemma aut margarita, Cic.: vitrea, Glaspaste, Plin.: gemmarum sculptores, Isid.: gemmas faberrime sculpere, Apul. – 2) übtr., wie unser Juwel, Kleinod = Schmuck, Zierde, Mart. u. Sidon. – B) meton.: 1) von Ggstdn. aus Edelsteinen: a) = das aus Edelsteinen gemachte Trinkgeschirr, Edelsteingeschirr, bibere e gemma, Prop., od. gemmā, Verg.: gemmā ministrare, Sen. – b) der Siegelring, das Siegel, gemmae damnum, Plin.: imprimere gemmam, Ov.: gemmā signari (v. Briefe), Ov. – 2) = Perle, Prop., Mart. u. Amm. – 3) gemmae = die Augen des Pfauenschweifes, Ov. met. 1, 723.

1 gemma v. gamma

2 gemma [CL] 1 bud, shoot (in quot., fig.). es vitis, vite palmes; tibi vivat et ex se / conetur gemmas trudere rore tuo Garl. Epith. III 288. 2 gem, precious stone. Aldh. VirgV 1934 (v. crepundium b); c717 in stellantium varietate ~arum vel in luxuriosorum ciborum ‥ diversitate Bonif. Ep. 9; GlC B 82 (v. beryllus a); 801 sicut regium diadema fulgor ~arum ornat Alcuin Ep. 225; pretiosas ~as ‥ , deorwyrþe gymmas Ælf. Coll. 96; si [munus] non est auro ~isque crustatum, est certe totum caritativa fidelitate factum Anselm (Ep. 10) III 113; textum evangeliorum auro et argento ~isque decoravit Ord. Vit. VI 4 p. 17; gemmas commendat virtutum mira potestas, / fulgor scintillans Neckam DS VI 129; ~a dicitur eo quod luceat instar gummi ut dicit Ysid. [Isid. Etym. XVI 6. 2] ‥ ingens est herbis virtus sed maxima ~is quarum quedam in venis terre inveniuntur ‥ quedam a profundo maris evomuntur Bart. Angl. XVI 46; 1291 tributor bonorum, rex in ~is maris, dominus duarum adorationum (Lit. Soldani) B. Cotton 217; conficit ex vitris gemmas oculo preciosas Gower VC V 791; 1448 (v. crux 4c). 3 (fig.): a (of stars); b (of eyes); c (of breasts); d (of person); e (of abstr.). a gyrum caeli rotundissimum ‥ quasi per zonam quandam ‥ distincti ordines ~arum xij ‥ obsident Bede TR 16.  b dormio ‥ patulis, non claudens lumina, gemmis Aldh. Aen. 39 (Leo) 6; scribe gemmam genarum gemere / ferientis avulsam vomere J. Howd. Ph. 582.  c pectus ‥ quasi ‥ / gemmas virgineas producat utrimque papillas Vinsauf PN 591.  d gemma sacerdotum Martinus Wulf. Swith. I 428; [Waltheus] ~a vite canonice speculum monastice discipline J. Furness Walth. prol. 3; Neckam DS V 662 (v. Dacus 2a); rex pacificus Anglorum decus, regum ~a ‥ Æluredus Oxnead 2.  e contempsit hujus vitae discrimina ut dignus fieri mereretur ~a egregia in coelesti curia Byrht. V. Ecgwini 396; ~e virtutum, que incluse auro sapientie diadema venustant R. Niger Mil. II 5. 4 seal. bulla, ~a vel sigl GlH B 411. 5 (w. salis) rock salt Cf. sal, salgemma. ubi colligitur quod quidam nitrum, quidam salis ~am vocant W. Malm. GR IV 377; salis ge[mmam] et farinam saliginis Gilb. II 83v. 1.

3 gemma [OF gemme] , gum. V. et. gummi. 1214 mittatis nobis x li. sulfuris et ‥ totidem de ~a et totidem de pice Cl 167b; 1309 carcavit xx barellos ~e EEC 363.

4 gemma v. 1 genuinus

gemma, (9) æ, f. , ¶ 1 pierre précieuse, gemme : pocula ex auro gemmis distincta clarissimis Cic. Verr. 2, 4, 62, coupes dʼor enrichies des pierreries les plus éclatantes ; gemma vitrea Plin. 35, 48, pierre fausse, verre ; gemma factitia Plin. 37, 98, pierre artificielle || pierre formant une coupe, un vase à boire, coupe ornée de pierreries : Virg. G. 2, 506 ; Prop. 3, 5, 4 || chaton de bague, cachet : Ov. M. 9, 566 ; Plin. 37, 3 ; Juv. 13, 138 || perle : Prop. 1, 14, 12 || [fig.] beauté, ornement : Mart. 5, 11, 3 ¶ 2 bourgeon, œil [de la vigne] : Cic. CM 53 ; Virg. G. 2, 335 ; B. 7, 48.

gemma , ae. f.
葡萄芽。寶石。

Suggest a Translation
See an image

gemma, ae, f.: gemma, germoglio; antequam gemmas agant Varr prima che mettano i germogli

stelle [CiprG]

● gemma, pietra preziosa; pocula ex auro gemmis distincta clarissimis Cic coppe d'oro tempestate con le gemme più splendide

● pietruzza Marz

● perla

● ambra gialla Marz

● incenso Plin

● pietra magnetica Claud

● ghiaccio

● pupilla [AppV]

● (al pl.), occhi della coda del pavone Ov.

gemma ae, f

• GEM-, a bud, eye, gem: turgent in palmite gemmae, V.—A precious stone, jewel, gem: gemmas coëmere: pocula gemmis distincta: ornatus multis gemmis: maior, Iu.—A wrought gem: ut gemmā bibat, a goblet carved of a precious stone, V.: signat sua crimina gemmā, seal-ring, O.: Arguit ipsorum quos littera gemmaque, Iu.—An eye(of a peacock's tail), O.

GEMMA

GEMMAa gem or precious stone (Greek, λίθος: there is no Greek word for gems as distinguished from ordinary stones. On the supposed rule of the grammarians that λίθος, a precious stone, is feminine, consult Liddell and Scott, s. v.).

The desire to possess the precious or semiprecious stones, whether as ornaments or as objects of superstition, is universally prevalent. In any nation, however, it is limited by the geographical conditions, and by the degree of mechanical skill available. At the early stage of civilisation represented on Greek soil by the graves of Mycenae and kindred deposits, the stones found are of no great rarity, but are shaped and polished in a way that proves considerable mastery over hard materials. Thus objects of agate, rock-crystal, sard, and amethyst are elaborately worked and engraved. (Schliemann, Mycenae, figs. 307-315; Lolling, Kuppelgrab bei Menidi, pl. vi.; Cat. of Gems in Brit. Mus. 104-109.) In Homer, however, there are no traces of the use of gems, as there is not any good reason for supposing them to be intended by the ἕρματα πρίγληνα μορόεντα of Iliad, 14.182; Od. 18.297. (See Buchholz, Homerische Realien, 2. p. 214.) It has long been observed that Homer was unacquainted with the use of seals (Pliny, Plin. Nat.33.12), and the nearest approach in Homer to the use of gems as ornaments is the employment of the attractive and easily worked amber in jewellery (Od. 15.460, 18.295; Helbig, Das homerische Epos, p. 183). From these facts it may be inferred that the art of working in hard stones was lost after the Mycenaean period; and this conclusion is confirmed by statistics as to the very early gems known as the gems of the Islands [see SCALPTURA]. These gems are found both among Mycenaean and early Greek deposits. But while in the former case they are often of the hard stones mentioned above, in the latter case they are of soft materials, such as steatite. (See Dümmler, Mittheilungen des Arch. Inst. in Athen, 11. p. 177.)

The Greeks of historical times had a restricted choice of precious stones, until the conquests of Alexander had opened up intercourse with India. The stone of Polycrates was an emerald, according to Herodotus (Hdt. 3.41); but a sardonyx, according to Pliny (Plin. Nat.37.4). In the treasure lists of the temples of the Acropolis of Athens, the only gems mentioned are the jasper, sard, and onyx, together with the χρυσίτης λίθος, or gold ore. (Compare with this list Plato, Phaedo, 110 D, τὰ ἀγαπώμενα, . . . σάρδιά τε καὶ ἰάσπιδας καὶ σμαράγδους.) The gems mentioned in the treasure lists were for the most part set in rings or used as seals, and were therefore of small size. An onyx, however, is mentioned in a list for 398 B.C., which represented a τραγέλαφος and weighed 5 oz. (C. I. A. 652 b, 50.12). Another onyx is mentioned in the list for 385 B.C. (C. I. a. 667, 50.20), which apparently weighed 42 oz. (But cf. Boeckh, Staatshaushaltung, ii.3 247.) Perhaps one of these stones is the great onyx reported as broken in the list for 344 B.C. (C. I. A. 701, 50.57; cf. C. I. A. 676, 50.18).

The state of knowledge as to gems about the time of Alexander is represented by the work of Theophrastus Περὶ Λίθων, the only surviving systematic treatise on the subject in Greek. Though written in 315 B.C., the book has not felt the influence of Alexander's campaigns. Theophrastus surveys, however, the whole basin of the Mediterranean, and Asia Minor. He makes one allusion to Bactria, and a doubtful one to India. The number of gems available for the engraver is now become considerable. Theophrastus enumerates among stones suitable for engraving the emerald, sard, carbuncle (ἄνθραξ), lapis-lazuli (σάπφειρος: see below), jacinth (λυγκούριον), topaz [?] (ὑαλοειδής), chrysoprase [?] (ὄμφαξ, rock-crystal, and amethyst. Among the lost works of Aristotle was a treatise with the same title as that of Theophrastus, of very doubtful authenticity. (Heitz, Die verlorenen Schriften des Aristoteles.)

For accounts of the extraordinary profusion of precious stones in the East, and among the successors of Alexander, compare Diod. Sic. 18.26; Athenaeus, 11. p. 781; Strabo, 15. p. 718, and other passages quoted by Krause, Pyrgoteles, p. 113. The extravagant luxury of the Romans of the Empire rivalled that of the Diadochi. Thus Heliogabalus wore gems engraved by the best artists, on his shoes. (Lamprid. Heliog. 23; cf. Plin. Nat.9.117, and other passages quoted by Krause, Pyrgoteles, p. 114.)

This passion on the part of the wealthy for precious stones was naturally favourable to the growth of mineralogical knowledge. Pliny quotes a large number of writers who had treated of gems between Theophrastus and himself. Some of these writers (as Zenothemis, Plin. Nat.37.87) seem to have had a personal knowledge of India (cf. King, Precious Stones, p. 1). Pliny devotes the 37th or final book of his Natural History to gems, regarding them as the most perfect works of nature. The book consists of an historical introduction ( § § 1-5); of an account of the most important gems, arranged by colours ( § § 6-54); of an account of minor gems in alphabetical order. The book concludes with a few general instructions for detecting fraud. This book is the best representative of ancient science in this branch of mineralogy. In attempting to form from it an estimate of the ancient science, we must neglect the false medicine, sometimes rejected by Pliny (Plin. Nat.37.53), the magical superstitions, and the trade mysteries (cf. H. N. 37.57, on the difficulty of breaking diamonds). We then find that the ancients were remarkably close observers of gems, availing themselves of all methods, short of chemical analysis and other instruments of modern physical research. It is said of Democritus that ne lapidum . . . vis lateret, aetatem inter experimenta consumpsit (Petron. Sat. 100.88). Moreover, in the case of precious stones, minuteness of observation was stimulated by the desire of guarding against or of committing a fraud (H. N. 37.197 ff.). Besides a minute study of colours of gems, frequently illustrated by Pliny's felicitous comparisons, the tests enumerated involve a study of weight (H. N. 37. § § 98, 199), consistency (corpore, § 199), hardness ( § § 98, 113, 200), conductivity ( § § 128, 199), transparency ( § 198 and passim), diffractive power ( § § 87, 136), friction ( § 189), crystallography ( § § 26, 56, 76, 137, 144, 171, 178), taste ( § § 162, 173), and smell ( § § 139, 145, 147, 174, 185).

There are no traces in Theophrastus of magical properties attributed to gems. In Pliny, the doctrines of the Magi are frequently quoted, but usually with ridicule. (Cf. H. N. 37. § § 118, 142 ff. and passim.) Some of the medicinal virtues of gems apparently accepted by Pliny, may appear little better than the doctrines of the Magi. But while Pliny is not in a position to criticise the alleged virtues of gems applied as medicines, he consistently rejects their supernatural powers under other conditions. The magical system is seen fully developed in the Lithica of Orpheus. This poem claims to be a statement of the magic properties of gems made by the seer Theodamas to the poet Orpheus. The work is assigned by Tyrwhitt to a time subsequent to the edict of Constantius against magic, in 357 A.D. (cf. lines 73, 74), and not long after Valens. (Tyrwhitt, Περὶ λίθων, poema Orpheo adscriptum, London, 1781.) In this view Tyrwhitt is followed by subsequent editors, although Krause (Pyrgoteles, p. 6) assigns the work to the 5th century B.C.; and King (Precious Stones, pp. 4, 397) dates it at least as early as the 2nd century B.C. King gives an English verse translation (Precious Stones, p. 375).

On the later developments of the magical system of Orpheus until mediaeval times, see King, Precious Stones, p. 6.

Much confusion and uncertainty exist as to the true nomenclature of gems. Both in ancient and modern times there has been considerable looseness of usage as to the meaning of names. In many instances where the ancient word exists in modern language, it denotes a stone entirely different from that originally signified. For example, σάπφειρος is certainly the lapislazuli, and has no connexion with the sapphire. The correct equivalents of the ancient names are generally given after King and others, in Liddell and Scott's Lexicon (ed. 7).

Literature.--Krause, Pyrgoteles, oder die edlen Steine der Alten(learned, but untrustworthy); Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Romer, Gotha, 1861; C. W. King, Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems, and of Precious Metals, London, 1865; Blümner, Technologie, 3.227. On the use of gems in rings, see ANULUS; on the art of gem engraving, see SCALPTURA

[A.H.S]

Gemma

(λίθος). A precious stone. The art of cutting gems was learned by the Greeks, at an early period, from the Egyptians, who had practised it from remote antiquity. The Aethiopians used engraved stones as coins (λίθοι ἐγγεγλυμμένοι), and engraved seals may have been used for money in Greece prior to the invention of coinage. (See Numismatics.) At first the cutting was only concave, the gems being set in rings and used as seals. The subjects are usually human or animal forms, especially lions, bulls, and horses. The oldest Greek gems, numbers of which have been found at Mycenae and Ialysus, are bean-shaped (“lenticular”) or pebble-shaped (“glandular”), differing thus from the cylinders and scarabs of Assyria and Egypt. Cameos or stones carved in relief first came into use, it would seem, in the time of Alexander the Great, and were used as ornaments. For cameos precious stones of various colours were used, especially the onyx. The layers of the stone were so treated that the figures stood out vividly on a dark ground. Mnesarchus of Samos, the father of the philosopher Pythagoras (about B.C. 600) is the oldest Greek jeweller whose name has come down to us. In the fourth century B.C. the most celebrated master was Pyrgoteles, the only artist whom Alexander the Great would allow to cut his likeness. In the age of Augustus we hear of Dioscorides, who cut the emperor's likeness on a stone which was used as a seal by the succeeding Caesars. The Etruscans and Romans took up the art very early, but never attained the same perfection as the Greeks, importing gems largely from both Greece and Egypt. The scarab or beetle-shaped gems, so little valued by the Greeks, were intensely admired by the Etruscans, whose art in so many respects exhibits Egyptian characteristics.

The fashion of making collections of beautiful gems arose as early as the first century B.C. The intaglios, or cut stones, have come down to us in greater numbers than any of the monuments of ancient art. Those which belonged to the advanced periods of style present examples of the most beautiful workmanship, the most original composition, and the most interesting subjects, the latter being mainly taken from mythology. Among the remaining Greek cameos an important place, both for size and beauty, must be given to the Gonzaga Cameo in St. Petersburg. This, it has been conjectured, represents the bust of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoé, his sister and wife; though it more probably commemorates Nero and Agrippina. The largest and most splendid of the cameos which have come down from the Roman period are those at Vienna and Paris, representing, in groups and figures, the family of Augustus. Gems engraved with humorous designs were called grylli. (See Antiphilus.) These usually combined half a dozen incongruous forms arranged into the semblance of some well-known object, and occasionally with a hidden meaning. Thus, the accompanying example from a gem in the King Collection is made up of a wolf, a boar, and a lizard so blended as to form a helmet, the emblems respectively of Mars, Minerva, and Mercury.

Whole vessels were sometimes made of single stones, and adorned with reliefs. An instance is the Mantuan Vase now at Brunswick, 6 1/3 inches high, 2 1/3 inches thick, consisting of a single onyx. The lid, handle, and base are of gold. Two parallel lines of gold divide the surface into three parts, the middle one of which has twelve figures, representing the festival of the Thesmophoria, in three groups; while the highest and lowest are adorned with leaves, flowers, ears of corn, fruits, bulls' heads, and other objects connected with the worship of Demeter. Works of this kind were sometimes made of coloured glass. The most celebrated instance of this sort is the Portland Vase, found filled with ashes in the tomb of Alexander Severus, and now in the British Museum. Its height is about 10 inches. The material is a dark blue transparent glass, with beautiful reliefs in white opaque enamel.

Herodotus (vii. 69) speaks of a sharp stone as being used in engraving gems. Many of the ancient gems, especially those used as coins, were engraved with obsidian, of which knives were made. A minute metal disk with a sharp edge and worked by a drill was used in cutting the deeper parts of the pattern. (Cf. Pliny, H. N. xxvii. 76; and Murray, Handbook of Greek Archaeology, pp. 147-148). A sort of emery-powder (smyris) was employed to charge the tools. The crustae of diamonds and fragments of ostracitis were used as diamond-points.

For some account of the extraordinary profusion of precious stones in the East and among the successors of Alexander, see Diod. Sic.xviii. 26; Athen. xi. p. 781; Strab.xv. p. 718, and other passages quoted by Krause, Pyrgoteles, p. 113. The extravagant luxury of the Romans of the Empire rivalled that of the Diadochi.

Pearls and emeralds were the favourite stones of the Romans. Iulius Caesar gave Servilia, the mother of Brutus, a pearl worth 6,000,000 sesterces ($240,000). The famous pearl which Cleopatra dissolved and drank was one of a pair set in ear-rings, and worth 10,000,000 sesterces ($400,000). Claudius Aesopus, son of the great actor, in imitation of this feat, did the same thing, snatching, however, the gem from the ear of Caecilia Metella, a beauty of the day. Caligula wore pearls on his shoes; Nero had them sprinkled over his bed-coverings. Pliny tells how, at a wedding party—a rather quiet affair—Lollia Paulina, the wife of Caligula, was covered with pearls and emeralds which shone in alternate rows on her head, neck, and fingers, and of which the cost was 40,000,000 sesterces ($1,600,000), as she proved by showing to him the receipted bills for them. “Pearls,” he says in another place, “are the quintessence of extravagance.” Claudius used an emerald as an eye-glass with which to watch the circus games. The opal was also much admired, and Pliny tells how one Nonius was proscribed by Antony the triumvir so that he might be robbed of a magnificent opal in his possession. Pliny also speaks of the ruby (carbunculus) and the amethyst as much esteemed. (See αmethystus.) The ancients perhaps knew of the diamond, but could not have properly valued it, since the art of polishing and cutting it was not learned until it was discovered in modern times by Berquier of Bruges in the fifteenth century. (See αdamas.) Besides being worn in rings, gems were set in armillae or bracelets in many forms, including spirals and bangles; in monilia or necklaces of consecutive rows, one found at Pompeii having seventy-one pendants; and in ear-rings. (See Inauris.) Jewels also profusely adorned the drinking-cups used at banquets, and the dainty little boxes of gold and silver used by the ladies in the mysteries of their toilets.

As might be expected, there was a large traffic in imitations of the precious stones, executed in both paste and glass, and with much fidelity. Pliny (Pliny H. N. xxxvii. 197) speaks of “glass jewels in cheap rings” for the lower classes; and there exist to-day at Rome collections of these imitations which cannot be distinguished from the genuine stones by the eye. (See Vitrum.) The stone most successfully copied was the emerald, but we hear of counterfeits of the amethyst, ruby, and sapphire.

This passion on the part of the wealthy for precious stones was naturally favourable to the growth of mineralogical knowledge. Pliny quotes a large number of writers who had treated of gems between Theophrastus and himself. Some of these writers seem to have had a personal knowledge of India. Pliny devotes the final book of his Historia Naturalis to gems, regarding them as the most perfect works of nature. The book consists of an historical introduction ( 1-5); of an account of the most important gems, arranged by colours ( 6-54); and an account of minor gems in alphabetical order. The book concludes with a few general instructions for detecting fraud. This book, which is the best representative of ancient science in this branch of mineralogy, shows us that the ancients were remarkably close observers of gems, availing themselves of all methods, short of chemical analysis and other instruments of modern physical research. Moreover, in the case of precious stones, minuteness of observation was stimulated by the desire of guarding against or of committing a fraud (H. N. xxxvii. 197 foll.). Besides a minute study of colours of gems, frequently illustrated by Pliny 's felicitous comparisons, the tests enumerated involve a study of weight, consistency (corpus), hardness, conductivity, transparency, diffractive power, friction, taste, and smell.

There are no traces in Theophrastus of magical properties attributed to gems. In Pliny, the doctrines of the Magi are frequently quoted, but usually with ridicule. Some of the medicinal virtues of gems apparently accepted by Pliny may appear little better than the doctrines of the Magi. But while Pliny is not in a position to criticise the alleged virtues of gems applied as medicine, he consistently rejects their supernatural powers under other conditions. The magical system is seen fully developed in the Lithica of Orpheus. (See amuletum.) This poem claims to be a statement of the magic properties of gems made by the seer Theodamas to the poet Orpheus. The work is generally assigned to a time subsequent to the edict of Constantius against magic, in A.D. 357, and not long after Valens, although Krause (Pyrgoteles, p. 6) ascribes it to the fifth century b.c.; and King dates it “at least as early as the second century B.C.” The latter scholar gives an English verse translation (Precious Stones, p. 375).

Much confusion and uncertainty exist as to the true nomenclature of gems. Both in ancient and modern times there has been considerable looseness of usage as to the meaning of names. In many instances where the ancient word exists in modern language, it denotes a stone entirely different from that originally signified. For example, σάπφειρος is certainly the lapis lazuli, and has no connection with the sapphire, which was called hyacinthus.

See Krause, Pyrgoteles, oder die edlen Steine der Alten (Halle, 1856); Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Römer (Gotha, 1861); C. W. King, Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems, and of Precious Metals (London, 1870); id. Hand-book of Engraved Gems (London, 1866); id. Antique Gems and Rings (London, 1873); Middleton, The Engraved Gems of Classical Times (London, 1891); Blümner, Technologie, iii. 227 (Leipzig, 1875-87); Murray, Hand-book of Greek Archaeology, pp. 40-50, 146-173 (London, 1892); and an article in Harper's Magazine for 1879, vol. lix. pp. 532-541. On the use of gems in rings, see anulus; on the art of gem engraving, see scalptura.