medicus

medicus , a, um: adj. (medeor), healing.

mĕdĭcus, a, um [medeor], of or pertaining to healing, healing, curative, medical (as adj., poet. and in post-Aug. prose).

• I Adj.: medicas adhibere manus ad vulnera, Verg. G. 3, 455: ars, Ov. Tr. 5, 6, 12: potus, Nemes. Cyn. 222: vis, Plin. 36, 27, 69, § 202: salubritas, id. 5, 16, 15, § 72: usus, id. 22, 25, 81, § 163: digitus, the next to the little finger (cf. medicinalis), id. 30, 12, 34, § 108. —*
• • B Transf., magical: Marmaridae, medicum vulgus, ad quorum tactum mites jacuere cerastae, Sil. 3, 300.—
• II Subst.:
• • A mĕdĭcus, i, m.
  • • 1 A medical man, physician, surgeon (class.): medicus nobilissimus atque optimus quaeritur, Cic. Clu. 21, 57: medicum arcessere, Plaut. Men. 5, 2, 122 (874): admovere aegro, Suet. Ner. 37: vulnerum, a surgeon, Plin. 29, 1, 8, § 22: caeduntur tumidae medico ridente mariscae, Juv. 2, 13; cf.: medicus ait se obligasse crus fractum Aesculapio, Apollini autem bracchium, Plaut. Men. 5, 3, 9 (884): MEDICVS CLINICVS, CHIRVRGVS, OCVLARIVS, Inscr. Orell. 2983: AVRICVLARIVS, ib. 4227: IVMENTARIVS, ib. 4229; cf.: medici pecorum, Varr. R. R. 2, 7 fin.: LEGIONIS, Inscr. Orell. 448; 4996: DVPLARIVS TRIREMIS, ib. 3640: instrumentum medici, Paul. Sent. 3, 6, 62.—Prov.: medice, cura teipsum, Vulg. Luc. 4, 23.—
    • 2 The finger next the little finger, Gr. δάκτυλος ἰατρικός, Auct. Her. 3, 20, 33.—
  • B mĕdĭ-ca, ae, f., a female physician (post-class.), Ap. Met. 5, 10, 7 Oud.; Inscr. Orell. 4230 sq.; Inscr. Grut. 635, 9; 636, 1 sq.—Also, a midwife, Interpr. Paul. Sent. 2, 24, 8; Ambros. Ep. 5.—
  • C mĕdĭca, ōrum, n., medicinal herbs, Plin. 19, 5, 27, § 89.

1. medicus, a, um (medeor), I) heilend, heilsam, zum Heilen gehörig, -dienlich, medizinisch, A) adi.: manus, Verg.: ars, Heilkunst, Ov.: vis, Plin.: calor, Solin.: digitus, der Goldfinger, Plin. – B) subst.: 1) medicus, ī, m., a) (verst. digitus), der Goldfinger (griech. δάκτυλος ἰατρικός), Cornif. rhet. 3, 33. – b) der Arzt, Wundarzt, auricularius, iumentarius, Inscr.: medicus unus palatinus, Palastarzt, kaiserl. Leibarzt, Lampr. Alex. Sev.: medicus suus domesticus, Augustin.: medicus domesticus et familiaris, Sen.: peritus medicus et suae domui familiarissimus, Augustin.: vulnerum, Plin.: pecorum, Varro: legionis, Inscr.: bonus, malus, Cic.: medici inscii imperitique, Cic.: medicum arcessere, Plaut.: medicum adhibere (verst. morbo), Cic.: medicum ad aegrum adducere, Cic.: aegro medicum admovere, Suet.: medicos cogere, Cic.: medico honorem (Honorar) habere, Cic.: medico reddere honorem suum, Augustin. – 2) medica, ae, f., a) die Ärztin, Apul. met. 5, 10. Corp. inscr. Lat. 6, 9614 u. 9616. – b) die Hebamme, Donat. Ter. Andr. 3, 2, 1. Ambros. epist. 5, 9. – 3) medica, ōrum, n., Heilkräuter, offizinelle Kräuter, Plin. 19, 89. – II) zauberisch, Sil. 3, 300.

1 medicus [CL] 1 that heals, curative, medical. ut transacti laborem diei temperaret medice [v. l. modice] quietis voluptas W. Malm. GR II 154; medica sum doctus in arte Babio 459; in morbis sanat medica virtute Salernum / egros Vinsauf PN 1008. 2 (digitus ~us) medical finger: a third finger. b fourth finger. a [digito] medio ‥ solo, qui ~us appellatur, in medium palmae fixo Bede TR 1 p. 269; tres digiti manus dextre, pollex, index, medius et verpus, id est ~us Rob. Flamb. Pen. 176; regi ‥ reddet virgam argenteam altam usque ad os ejus, ita grossam sicut digitum ~um ejus Leg. Wall. A 144 (cf. ib. B 224: sicut medium digitum).  b ejusdem [puelle] quoque manus duos digitos exteriores quos prudens adinventio ~um et auricularem nominavit interius replicatos Mir. Wulfst. I 22; 1271 (v. 1 digitus 1b); 1488 nervos trium digitorum suorum sc. medii, ~i, et auricularis ejusdem manus totaliter scidit SelC Council Hen. VII 64. 3 (as. sb. m. and f.) medic, doctor, physician; b (w. ref. to Christ as a healer); c (w. ref. to saint as physician or healer); d (acad.); e (as professional title, becoming a surname). [ibis] qui mittit aquam de ore suo in culum suum ut possit degerere; indeque ~i ipsam artem didicerunt Comm. Cant. I 357; quem medici multum ruris per terga virentem, / cum scabies morbi pulpas irrepserit aegras Aldh. Aen. 94 (Ebulus) 4; praecepit ~o ‥ sanandae scabredini capitis ejus curam adhibere Bede HE V 2 p. 284; ~us, læ ce Ælf. Gram. 302; 1168 non est enim ~us, non incantator, qui ea de manu Domini possit eruere J. Sal. Ep. 281 (250 p. 504); ~orum opera parum indiget Gir. TH I 33; ~us autem non sanat, sed natura cujus ~us est minister Siccav. PN 142.  b quamobrem verax ~us ‥ caelestis medicinae antidotum ‥ propinaret Aldh. VirgP 7; ~us noster Jesus Christus Ailr. Serm. 259; mitte medelam, medice, sauciatis / nosque devotos effice tue laudi J. Howd. Cant. 33.  c tertius Lucas ~us Comm. Cant. III p. 412 tit.; Antiochensis ~us ‥ lxxvii generationum laterculis protoplaustum terminum posuit Aldh. Met. 2 p. 68; his dive ~e fomentis eger animus in spem velut ad vitam regreditur Gosc. Transl. Mild. 22 p. 187; nimirum hec sancta ~a preciosissimi martyris Laurentii meruit virtutem Id. Wulfh. 5.  d in urbe Psalernitana ubi maxime ~orum scole ab antiquo tempore habentur Ord. Vit. III 5 p. 70; Galienus et universalis ~orum scola Alf. Angl. Cor 5. 2; 1350 theologi ‥ decretiste, medici et legiste StatOx 37; 1379 statutum est quod vesperie medicorum in scolis propriis teneantur, et quod doctores arguant in eisdem Ib. 177.  e 790 Uinter ~us mihi promisit duo carrata de vino optimo et claro Alcuin Ep. 8; Nigellus ~us ‥ tenet jugum DB I 1vb; c1105 testibus Wald’ cancellario et Grimbaldo ~o apud Westmonasterium, in Natale Domini (Breve) Chr. Abingd. II 93; 1209 de terra magistri H. ~i Pipe Wint. 77; H. de A. occidit W. de P. ita quod ante mortem ejus venit ad domum J. ~i et ibi obiit de plaga PlCrGlouc 24; 1309 Auberto medici [sic], filio magistri Roberti de Bosco, fisici RGasc IV 214. 4 (~us animarum, salutis, spiritalis, or sim., w. ref. to the cure of souls) spiritual healer; b (iron., w. ref. to the Devil). inter multa gesta illius mirifica, in quibus maximae peritiae ~us fuit animarum, fertur ‥ V. Greg. 98; o ~um salutis [sc. Guthlacum] ‥! Felix Guthl. 51 p. 162; a747 longum est enim enumerare, quanti spiritales ~i hujus peccati venenum et horrendum vituperabant Bonif. Ep. 73 p. 149; spiritales ~i diversis curationum generibus animarum vulnera sanare debent Ælf. EC 34; in persona medicorum et custodum angelorum, qui ~i sunt animarum Gir. SD 46; quia ~us animarum contra passiones viciorum debet opponere medicamenta virtutum Cust. Cant. 75.  b tot habet pixides maledictus ~us infernalis [ME: þe luðere leche of helle] plenas electuariis AncrR 82. 5 medical finger: a third finger. b fourth finger. a hic ~us, the therde fynger WW.  b medius vel impudicus, middelfinger; ~us vel annularis, goldfinger Ælf. Gl. 158; 10‥ medius, middelfinger; ~us, læ cefinger WW; c1205 debet utriusque manus pollicem et indicem atque medium erigere, submissis ~o et auriculari P. Blois Ep. Sup. 51. 13; Ps.-Ric. Anat. 44 (v. 2 auricularis 2b); stat medius [gl.: medylle fyngure] medio, medicus [gl.: lechefyngure] jam convenit egro WW; est pollex, index, medius, medicus, auricularis [gl.: thombe, forefyngur, medulle fyngur, lechefyngur, litylle fyngure] WW.

2 medicus v. modicus

1 mĕdĭcus, (13) a, um (medeor), propre à guérir, qui soigne, guérit : Virg. G. 3, 455 ; Ov. Tr. 5, 6, 12 ; Plin. 36, 202 || magique : Sil. 3, 300.

2 mĕdĭcus, (8) ī, m. , médecin : Pl. Men. 875 ; Cic. Clu. 57 ; Suet. Nero 37 ; Plin. 29, 22 || doigt annulaire (cf. medicinalis ) : Plin. 30, 108.

medicus , i. m.
醫生。内科。

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medicus , a, um. adj.
醫生者。Ars medica 醫學。

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medicus , a, um. adj. (media.)
某國者。Medicum malum 佛手果。芬柑。

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medicus (1) adj.,

• of healing, healing, medicinal: manūs, V.: ars, O.

medicus (2) ī, m

• 1 medicus, a medical man, physician, surgeon: nemon medicum adduxit?T.: non ignobilis: quod medicorum est Promittunt medici, H.: medico ridente, Iu.

MEDICUS

ME´DICUS(ἰατρός), the name given by the ancients to every professor of the healing art, whether physician or surgeon, and accordingly both divisions of the medical profession will here be included under that term. In Greece and Asia Minor physicians seem to have been held in high esteem; far more so than at Rome. This was at least to some extent due to the religious sense, ἰατρικὴ and μαντικὴ being regarded as akin (Eustath. ad II. 1.63), and to the apotheosis of Aesculapius, of whom physicians speak as ὁἡμέτερος πρόγονος (Plat. Symp. p. 186 A). When we meet such expressions as that in Athen. 15. p. 666 b, εἰ μὴ ἰατροὶ ἦσαν ουδὲν ἂν ἧν τῶν γραμματικῶν μωρότερον, the allusion is to the pedantry of physicians after the type ridiculed by Molière, and does not show a general depreciation of their class. Aelian mentions one of the laws of Zaleucus among the Epizephyrian Locrians, by which it was ordered that if any one during his illness should drink wine contrary to the orders of his physician, even if he should recover, he should be put to death for his disobedience (Var. Hist. 2.37); and, according to Mead, there are extant several medals struck by the people of Smyrna in honour of different persons belonging to the medical profession (Dissert. de Nummis quibusdam a Smyrnaeis in Medicor. Honor. percussis, 4to. Lend. 1724). According to the Decree of the Athenians and the Life of Hippocrates by Soranus (Hippocr. Opera, vol. iii. pp. 829, 853, ed. Kühn), the same honours were conferred upon that physician as had before been given to Hercules; he was voted a golden crown, publicly initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, and maintained in the Prytaneum at the state's expense. Both these pieces, however, are more legendary than historical. (Compare Plin. Nat.7.123.) The physician made up his medicines himself, and either sat in his ἰατρεῖον, which was both a consulting-room and a dispensary (called also ἐργαστήριον, Aeschin. in Timarch. § 124), or went a round of visits (Plat. Legg. 4.720 C. For these ἰατρεῖα cf. Poll. 10.46; Plat. Legg. 1. p. 646 C). Here he had also assistants and apprentices or pupils (Plat. Legg. iv. l. c.; Aeschin. in Timarch. § 40). In the former passage the assistant doctors are slaves, on which point cf. Diog. Laert.. No doubt slaves only as a rule were attended by slave doctors, and free men by free, but it is noticeable that Plato, when he says this, qualifies by ὡς ἐπὶ τὸ πλεῖστον. When Hyginus, Hyg. Fab. 274, says that there was a law at Athens against any slave practising, he must allude, if his assertion is true at all, to the state physicians.

Though hospitals are mentioned in Roman writers (Cels. de Medic. i. praef. sub fin.; Colum. de Re Rust. 11.1, 18; Sen. Epist. 27.1) after the time of Augustus [see VALETUDINARIA ], they are never, with one single exception in

Crates, mentioned by Greek writers before the Roman period. The function, so far as it was performed at all, was discharged by the temples of Aesculapius, and accordingly the chief places of study for medical pupils were the Ἀσκληπιεῖα, or temples of Aesculapius, where the votive tablets furnished them with a collection of cases. Hence we find in ancient works of art Aesculapius represented as visiting the sick. The Asclepiadae [MEDICINA] were very strict in examining into and overlooking the character and conduct of their pupils, and the famous Hippocratic oath (which, if not drawn up by Hippocrates himself, is certainly very ancient) requires to be inserted here as being the most curious medical monument of antiquity. I swear by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and Hygeia (Health), and Panaceia (All-heal), and all the gods and goddesses, calling them to witness that I will fulfil, according to the best of my power and judgment, this oath and written bond:--to honour as my parents the master who has taught me this art, and to share my substance with him, and to minister to all his necessities; to consider his children as my own brothers, and to teach them this art should they desire to follow it, without remuneration or written bond; to admit to my lessons, my discourses, and all my other teaching, my own sons, and those of my tutor, and those who have been inscribed as pupils and have taken the medical oath; but no one else. I will prescribe such regimen as may be for the benefit of my patients, according to the best of my power and judgment, and preserve them from anything hurtful and mischievous. I will never, if asked, administer poison, nor be the author of such advice; neither will I give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion. I will maintain the purity and integrity both of my conduct and of my art. I will not cut any one for the stone, but will leave the operation to those who cultivate it. Into whatever dwellings I may go, I will enter them for the benefit of the sick, abstaining from all mischief and corruption, especially from any immodest action, towards women or men, freemen or slaves. If during my attendance, or even unprofessionally in common life, I happen to see or hear of anything which should not be revealed, I will consider it a secret not to be divulged. May I, if I observe this oath, and do not break it, enjoy good success in life, and in [the practice of] my art, and be esteemed for ever; should I transgress and become a perjurer, may the reverse be my lot.

Some idea of the income of a physician in those times may be formed from the fact mentioned by Herodotus (Hdt. 3.131) that the Aeginetans (about the year B.C. 532) paid Democedes from the public treasury one talent per annum for his services, i. e. (if we reckon the Aeginetan drachma to be worth 1s.) not quite 304l.; he afterwards received from the Athenians one hundred minae, i. e. (reckoning the Attic drachma to be worth 9 3/4 d.) rather more than 406l., and he was finally attracted to Samos by being offered by Polycrates a salary of two talents, i. e. (if the Attic standard be meant) about 422l. Valckenaer doubts the accuracy of this statement of Herodotus with respect to the Aeginetans and Athenians, but we have no right to reject it, and it is accepted as true by Boeckh (Staatshaush. i.3 153). A physician, called by Pliny both Erasistratus (H. N. 29.5) and Cleombrotus (H. N. 7.123), is said by him to have received one hundred talents, i. e. considerably over 20,000l., for curing king Antiochus.

State physicians were employed in Greece (from Democedes downwards). They were selected on the ground of knowledge evidenced in their private practice (Xen. Mem. 4.2, 5; Plat. Gorg. 455 B, 514 D). In Plat. Polit. p. 259 A we see them distinguished from those who practised privately: their practice and official status are described by the word δημοσιεύειν specially applied to them, and in their public capacity they received salary but took no fees (Aristoph. Av. 587; Acharn. 994); their expenses, however, were paid besides their salary, and they received public honours for distinguished service (C. I. A. 2.256, p. 424). It appears from Diod. 12.13that they attended gratis any one who applied to them, and it is at least probable that they were bound to give their services on military expeditions. From Aristoph. Plut. 407 it appears that in that period of depression at Athens the office was discontinued from motives of economy. [W.A.G]

As regards the rise and progress of the medical profession at Rome, we must distinguish between the slaves skilled in medicine, who were kept in the larger households, and the physician in general practice. The former, no doubt, came earlier in date, and those who could afford skilled slaves for medical treatment already employed them, when for the masses there was no practising physician: but in the yet earlier times for all alike, and for the general public to a comparatively late period, the treatment of sickness was by traditional family recipes, partly founded on experience, partly on superstition, the Romans being for the most part, as late as the 600th year of the city (according to Pliny, Plin. Nat.19.11), sine medicis nec tamen sine medicina. A little earlier however than this (B.C. 219), says Pliny on the authority of Cassius Hemina, the first professed physician, the Greek Archagathus, came to Rome. He was made a citizen and started in a shop at the public expense (Plin. Nat.29.12): but his treatment was unpopular from its heroic method, a saevitia secandi urendique. There was much opposition, for the Romans regarded with suspicion the skill of the foreigners, and shunned the calling themselves as a degradation. Cato, who still held to the old custom, and used a family manual of medicine (commentarium), quo mederetur filio, servis et familiaribus, strongly opposed the whole class of medici, against whom he warns his son, as banded together to kill Roman citizens. In Plautus (Menaechm. 5.1) we have perhaps evidence of the same mistrust and contempt; but it is never possible to assume that the customs and sentiments described in Plautus are Roman rather than Greek.

Gradually however, after the time of Archagathus, the number of foreign physicians in Rome increased, alike those in private houses, who were either slaves (cf. Suet. Nero 2) or freedmen, and those who had general practice. As a household physician of this kind we may instance Strato from the Cluentius of Cicero (63, 176). We have the price of a slave physician fixed at 60 solidi (Just. Cod. 7.7, 1, 5). The practising physicians at Rome were nearly all of the freedman class (see the inscriptions cited by Marquardt, Privatleben, p. 772). They had booths (tabernae), where they practised with slaves or freedmen as their assistants and pupils, whom they took about with them in their visits (Mart. 5.9). Few Romans took up the profession (though we hear of Vettius Valens, a man of equestrian rank in the reign of Claudius); and Julius Caesar, avowedly to encourage their residence, gave the citizenship to foreign physicians (Suet. Jul. 42), with the result which he desired.

Among physicians who seem to have risen to greater repute we have Asclepiades of Prusa (Cic. de Or. 1.1. 4, 62; cf. Plin. Nat.7.124); Asclapo of Patrae, whom Cicero treated as a friend (Cic. ad Fam. 13.2. 0); Alexio, for whom he seems to have had even greater regard (ad Att. 15.1); Antonius Musa, the freedman and trusted physician of Augustus (Suet. Aug. 59; cf. Hor. Ep. 1.15, 3); M. Artorius (Vellei. 2.70, 1; Plut. Brut. 41); A. Cornelius Celsus, who wrote a medical treatise under Tiberius; Eudemus (Tac. Ann. 4.3), &c.

The professional gains of physicians under the Empire seem often to have been large: we are told of Stertinius by private practice making more than 5,000l. a year, and the surgeon Alcon amassing a fortune of nearly 100,000l. by a few years' practice in Gaul (Plin. Nat.29. § § 7, 22; cf. Mart. 11.84). Regular medical posts were instituted with large appointments: as court physicians with salaries varying from 250,000 to 500,000 H.S. (Plin. l. c.); as doctors for the army, for gladiatorial schools (C. I. L. 6.10171), and for the poorer public [ARCHIATER]. Apart from these state appointments the practice was entirely free from control or training: as a rule probably the training was gained by the sort of apprenticeship to some medicus described above, but anyone was at liberty to practise, and, in the words of Pliny, experimenta per mortes facere; ignorance was not, as in our country, penal, and hence medico hominem occidisse summa impunitas (Plin. Nat.29.18).

Besides the archiatri at Rome itself (one for each region), there were by order of Antoninus Pius in each city of Asia Minor state physicians (paid by the state, with immunity from taxes), in numbers varying from five to ten according to the size of the town (Dig. 27, 1, 6.2; 59, 9, 1; see Friedländer, iii. ch. 4). We can trace specialist physicians also, such as the oculist (ocularius or ab oculis), the aurist (aurarius). (Orelli, 4228, 2983; C. I. L. 6.6192; 8908.) The profession of dentist is implied at a very early date by the remarkable extract from the XII. Tables in Cic. de Leg. 2.2. 4, 60, relating to teeth stopped with gold. (See further Mart. 10.56.) We may also notice that female doctors (medicae) for attendance on women, apparently distinct from midwives (obstetrices), are found in many inscriptions (see Marquardt, op. cit. 779).

As regards army doctors among the Greeks, we find them in the heroic age when the ἰητρὸς ἀνὴρ is πολλῶν ἀντάξιος ἄλλων. It would appear from Homer, Hom. Il. 16.28, that there were several; perhaps, as some suggest, each contingent had an ἰητρός. In historical times we may learn something of their presence from Xenophon, Xen. Anab. 3.4, 30; Cyrop. 1.6, 16, 3.2, 12, 5.4, 17. Perhaps, as Dr. Hager suggests (Journ. of Philology, vol. viii. No. 15), the δημόσιοι ἰατροὶ had to accompany the army, as was the case in Egyptian armies (Diod. 1.82). [For Roman army doctors, see EXERCITUSVol. 1. p. 802 b; for quack doctors, PHARMACOPOLA; for hospitals, VALETUDINARIA; for surgeons, CHIRURGIA; and see also the articles ARCHIATER, IATROSOPHISTA. ]

(For this article and the preceding, reference may be made, besides the ancient authorities, to Becker-Göll, Charikles, 3.48 ff.; Gallus, 2.139 ff.; Marquardt, Privatleben, 772 ff.; Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece, 290; Daremberg, Hist. de la Médecine, ch. i.; Vercoutre, La Médecine dans l'antiq., Revue Archéol., 1880; Friedländer, Sittengeschichte, i.5 298 ff.)

[G.E.M]

Medĭcus

(ἰατρός). A physician or surgeon, the name being indiscriminately used of either. In Greece and Asia Minor, physicians were held in higher repute than at Rome, probably because of the traditional association of medicine with religion. A law of the Locrians quoted by Aelian (Var. Hist. ii. 37), punished with death the patient who disobeyed the orders of his physician. Hippocrates was treated as a demigod by the Athenians, if the account of Soranus be true.

The Greek physician compounded his own medicines, and either sat in his consulting-room (ἰατρεῖον) or visited his patients, in the latter duty being often accompanied by his pupils or assistants. There is only one mention of a Greek hospital prior to the Roman period. (See valetudinaria.) State physicians were employed in Greece, receiving a salary and their expenses, but no fees ( Aves, 587; Acharn. 994). Thus Democedes received from the public treasury of Aegina about $1400 per annum, and from Athens afterwards a salary of some $2000 (Herod.iii. 131). A physician who cured King Antiochus received from him a fee of over $100,000 (Pliny , Pliny H. N. vii. 123; xxix. 5). State physicians attended gratis any one who called for them.

In the early days of the Republic, Rome had no regular physicians. The haruspices and augurs pretended to some knowledge of medicine; but when a man fell ill, he was usually treated by the old women with their simples; or if the disease was a very serious one, he trusted to religious rites, vows, and sacrifices for his recovery. The various deities of disease were propitiated by temples and altars. In Varro's time there were in Rome three temples to the goddess of Fever; in the Esquiline quarter, an altar to Mefitis, the goddess Malaria; in the centre of the Forum Romanum, an altar to Cloacina, “the goddess of typhoid” (so Lanciani), and near the Praetorian Camp, an altar to Verminus, the god of diseasegerms. Cf. Lanciani, Ancient Rome, pp. 49-73.

At a later period, among the Greeks who first came in numbers to Rome in the second century B.C., were many professed physicians; and from that time the practice of medicine became a lucrative profession among the Romans, though the chief practitioners remained Greeks, a fact to which the Latin vocabulary bears witness in that its medical terms are nearly all of Greek origin. The elder Pliny gives some interesting details regarding the fees received by the leading doctors. The native physicians of celebrity, Cassius, Calpetanus, and Arruntius, received, he estimates, an income of not less than 250,000 sesterces ($10,000) a year. Quintus Stertinius, a fashionable physician, was asked by the emperor to give up his private practice and devote himself to the imperial family alone. Stertinius said that, as an especial favour, he would do it if he could receive a salary of 500,000 sesterces ($20,000). This struck the emperor as an exorbitant demand, but Stertinius showed from his books that his private practice was worth to him at least 600,000 sesterces per annum. The brother of this Stertinius had a sort of partnership with him, and when they died, which they did at about the same time, they left a property of 30,000,000 sesterces ($1,200,000), though they had lived very expensively, and given large sums to public objects. The Greek physicians at Rome probably earned still larger sums. An ex-praetor paid 200,000 sesterces ($8000) as a single fee to the practitioner who treated him for leprosy. Pliny mentions one Thessalus, of whom he says: “No popular actor, no famous jockey, had a greater throng attending him when he appeared in public.”

Nothing is known of the course of study necessary to qualify a man for medical practice. That there were medical students and clinical lectures is seen from Martial (v. 9). It is probable that the profession was open to all kinds of quacks and impostors, for we read of men taking up medicine as they would any form of trade, with no mention of any special qualification. It is, in fact, likely that, in the main, ancient medicine was little better than quackery, and that the best physicians were men like Crinas who made a careful study of dietetics, and like Asclepiades, who said “Nature is the true physician.” How absurd much of the treatment must have been is shown in the list of remedies given by Pliny in his Historia Naturalis (bk. xxix.). The patent medicines of to-day sink into insignificance beside them. Thus, we read of a mysterious preparation called Theriaca with 600 ingredients, and of another known as “the Mithridatic antidote” with 450. Pliny mentions 35 nostrums prepared from woolPliny, 22 from eggs, and also several pastes of which the principal constituent was pounded bugs. The notion, which is still largely prevalent among the laity, that the efficacy of a drug is in direct proportion to its nastiness seems to have had a strong hold on the minds of the ancients. Dog's blood was given for narcotic poisons; urine for gout; goat's gall for ophthalmia; bull's gall and garlic for ear-ache. Superstition entered largely into the treatment. A person afflicted with hiccoughing was gravely advised to touch his lips to a mule's nostrils and be cured. Hydrophobia was treated by applying to the bite the ashes of the dead dog's hair. A still more effectual remedy for the same disease was to cut out the liver of the dog and to eat it raw, applying at the same time to the wound, horse-dung sprinkled with vinegar.

All these prescriptions are the serious advice of men of reputation. It is not surprising if, on the whole, the profession was less esteemed than others. Pliny the Elder sums up the matter in the following sentences:

“There is no doubt that physicians in pursuit of celebrity, by the introduction of some novelty or other, purchase it at the cost of human life. Hence these woful discussions, these consultations at the bedside of the patient; hence, too, the ominous inscription to be read upon a tomb—‘I perished by the multitude of physicians’ . . . And there is, moreover, no law to punish the mistakes of a physician, and no instance before us of any punishment so inflicted. They acquire skill at our risk, and put us to death for the sake of making an experiment; for a physician is the only person who is licensed to kill.”

Other scandals besides those due to ignorance were not unknown. So many unprincipled persons entered the profession that it is not surprising to find complaints made of their conduct. Even the palace of the Caesars was the scene of strange occurrences, for it is recorded that both Livia, the wife of Drusus, and the empress Messalina were criminally intimate with their medical attendants. It is not remarkable, therefore, to find a Roman writer concluding a discussion of the subject with the words: “Medicine is the only one of the arts of Greece that, lucrative though it be, Roman dignity still refuses to cultivate.”

Nevertheless, medicine flourished, and its followers kept increasing in number. We hear of the practice of specialties. General practitioners were known as medici; surgeons as chirurgi and vulnerarii. There were also oculists (ocularii) and dentists (medici a dentibus). We even read of female physicians (Orell. Inscript. 4320-31), and, of course, of numerous midwives (obstetrices). Pharmacies existed, their sign being the Aesculapian snake; and though physicians usually furnished their own drugs, they also gave signed prescriptions (Duruy). The physicians attached to the imperial household were under the direction of a chief styled archiater (ἀρχίατρος), or in pure Latin dominus medicorum. The name archiater was also applied to the dispensary-physicians who gave their services to the people (archiatri populares). See Goldhorn, De Archiatris Romanis (Leipzig, 1841).

Surgery was the branch of medicine most scientifically pursued, and successful operations were performed by the ancient surgeons for stone and cataract, while trephining was not unknown. See chirurgia.

For a full discussion of the subject of ancient medicine, see Daremberg, Histoire des Sciences Médicales (Paris, 1870-73); Watson, The Medical Profession in Ancient Times (N. Y. 1856); Dunglison, History of Medicine (Philadelphia, 1872); and Berdoe, Origin and Growth of the Healing Art (London, 1894).